中國 & China: Chinese classic novels

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Water Margin(水滸傳)

Water Margin(水滸傳)

Alternative Names (異名):
水滸傳, 水浒传, Water Margin, Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men Are Brothers, The Marshes of Mount Liang

Water Margin or Outlaws of the Marsh or All Men Are Brothers or The Marshes of Mount Liang (traditional Chinese: 水滸傳; simplified Chinese: 水浒传; pinyin: Shuǐhǔ Zhuàn) is one of the Four Great Classical Novels (四大名著) of Chinese literature. Attributed to Shi Naian, whom some believe to be Luo Guanzhong, the novel details the trials and tribulations of 108 outlaws during the mid Song Dynasty (宋朝). The novel began as a series of folktales told from the Song (宋朝) to Ming (明朝) dynasties and was officially compiled and published during the 16th century.

Historical context and development

An illustration of the novelWater Margin is vaguely based upon the historical bandit Song Jiang and his 36 companions. The group was active in the Huai River region and eventually surrendered to government troops in 1121. They are recorded in the Song Shi (Chinese: 宋史 - "History of the Song Dynasty) (1345), the name of Song Jiang appearing in the chapter of Emperor Huizong, the activities of the gang in the chapter for Zhang Shuye (Chinese: 張叔夜). Folk stories about Song Jiang circulated during the Southern Song. The first text to name Song Jiang's thirty-six companions was the 13th century Guixin Zashi (Chinese: 癸辛雜識 - "Miscellaneous Observations from the Year Guixin") by Zhou Mi (Chinese: 周密) (1232 - 1298). Among the thirty-six are Lu Junyi, Guan Sheng, Ruan Xiaoer, Ruan Xiaowu, Ruan Xiaoqi, Liu Tang, Hua Rong and Wu Yong. Some of the characters to later become associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They include Sun Li, Yang Zhi, Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Wu Song.

A direct precursor of Water Margin was the Da Song Xuanhe Yishi (Chinese: 大宋宣和遺事 - "Old incidents in Xuanhe period of the great Song Dynasty"), which appeared around the mid-13th century. The text was basically a written version of storytellers' tales, based loosely on historical events. It is divided into ten chapters, roughly covering the history of the Song Dynasty from the early 11th century to the establishment of the Southern Song regime in 1127. The fourth chapter covers the adventures of Song Jiang and his 36 companions, and their eventual defeat by Zhang Shuye (Chinese: 張叔夜). Some of the more well-known stories and characters of the Water Margin are clearly visible, including "Yang Zhi selling his sword", "Stealing the birthday present", "Song Jiang kills his slave girl", "Fighting Fang La" etc. It places Song Jiang and his bandits in the Taihang Mountains, and his band ran the gamut from fishermen to ex imperial drill instructors to inn-keepers etc.

Stories about the bandits of Mount Liang became popular as subject for Yuan Dynasty drama. During this time the material on which the Water Margin was based evolved into what it is today. Song Jiang's bandits were expanded to number one hundred and eight, and though they came from different backgrounds, all eventually come to occupy Mount Liang. There is a theory that Water Margin became popular during the Yuan Dynasty due to resentment toward the Mongol rulers. Song Jiang's rebellion was safe to promote because it criticized the Song Dynasty on the surface, but it was also a call to oppose all corrupt governments.

Authorship and early editions

There is considerable disagreement as to the author of Water Margin. Most consider the first seventy chapters to have been written by Shi Nai'an, while the last thirty chapters were written by Luo Guanzhong, also the author of Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Luo may have been the disciple of Shi Nai'an. It has also been suggested that Shi Nai'an did not exist but was merely a pseudonym for Luo Guanzhong himself. Clues from the text itself strongly suggest that the author was a native of Zhejiang province (as both Luo and Shi were) who had little knowledge of northern China. At a 2006 conference, the leading scholars of the work agreed that Shi and Luo were probably the same person, because the name Shi Nai'an written backwards spells "an nai shi", meaning "It is I again."

It is not clear how close the Luo's edition was to those that are known today. The earliest extant edition of Water Margin is a 100-chapter printed text dating from the mid-16th century. Another edition, with 120 chapters by Yang Dingjian (Chinese: 楊定見), has been preserved from the Wanli era (1573–1620). Yet other editions were published since this era to the early Qing Dynasty, including a 70-chapter edition by Jin Shengtan (1608-1661).

Outline of each chapter

The opening episode is the release of the 108 spirits. The next chapter describes the rise of Gao Qiu, the main antagonist of the 108. Then follow the stories of different outlaws. At first the story may seem like separate stories, which, in a sense, they were. The connections were very vague between characters. But the story eventually comes together by Chapter 40 or so, during the exile and rescue of Song Jiang, who becomes the head of 108 outlaws. Once the main characters gather on the Mount Liang on the marsh, the story goes on with the conflicts with the Song dynasty, while Song Jiang keeps showing his loyalty to the emperor. After winning battles against the imperial forces, the outlaws are offered amnesty and invited by the emperor to become an official army, which Song Jiang willingly accepts. Gao Qiu, not being happy with them, sends them out to fight against the enemies of the dynasty, and finally we will see the tragic ending.

The following outline of chapters is based on a 100-chapter edition. Yang's 120-chapter edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song dynasty, while Jing's 70-chapter edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and following campaigns.

Chapter Event

1	Marshal Hong Releases the 108 Spirits.
2	The rise of Gao Qiu.
2–3	The story of Shi Jin.
3–7	The story of Lu Zhishen.
7–12	The story of Lin Chong.
12–13	The story of Yang Zhi.
13–20	The robbing of the birthday gifts led by Chao Gai and the "original 7".
20–22	The story of Song Jiang.
23–32	The story of Wu Song.
32–35	The story of Hua Rong.
36–43	The exile and rescue of Song Jiang.
44–47	The story of Shi Xiu and Yang Xiong.
47–50	The three assaults on the Zhu Family Village.
51–52	The story of Lei Heng and Zhu Tong.
53–55	The outlaws attack Gaotangzhou; the search for Gongsun Sheng.
55–57	The first imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Huyuan Zhuo).
57–59	The outlaws attack Qingzhou.
59–60	The outlaws attack Mount Mangdang.
60	The first assault on the Zeng Family Village; the death of Chao Gai.
60–67	The story of Lu Junyi; the outlaws attack Damingfu; the second imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Guan Sheng).
67	The third imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Shan Ting-gui and Wei Ding-guo).
68	The second assault on the Zeng Family Village.
69–70	The outlaws attack Dongpingfu and Dongchangfu.
71–74	The 108 heroes are fully assembled; the funny and lethal antics of Li Kui.
75–78	The Emperor offers amnesty the first time; the fourth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh.
78–80	The fifth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Gao Qiu).
81–82	The outlaws are granted complete amnesty.
83–89	The outlaws attack the Liao Tatars.
90–99	The outlaws attack the southern rebels (Fang La).
100	The tragic dissolution of the outlaws of the Marsh.

The extended version adds the Liangshan Marsh bandits' expeditions against other noted rebel leaders, Tian Hu in Hebei and Wang Qing in Szechuan, prior to the campaign against Fang La.

Modern transformations

Film and television

The Water Margin (Japanese: 水滸伝) was a successful Japanese television adaptation of the story, produced by Nippon Television and starring Atsuo Nakamura and Go Kato in the main roles. The show was filmed in 1973 on location in mainland China, as the first jointly co-produced show with a non-Communist country since 1949. The show was very successful and broadcast on TV in many other countries.

Some locations and characters were written into Mitsuteru Yokoyama's anime Giant Robo: The Animation as Yokoyama had previously published a manga version of the story of the outlaws of Mt. Liang.

A 1980s TV serial was also produced in Hong Kong by the studio TVB.

A 40 episode TV serial (Chinese: 水滸全傳) produced in Mainland China was released in 1997.

A 1972 movie of the same name was produced by the Shaw Brothers (Singapore).

A Hong Kong movie starring Tony Leung was made in the mid-1990s and it centered around Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Gao Qiu.

Literature

Qing Dynasty author Qian Cai intertwined the lives of Yue Fei and the bandits Lin Chong and Lu Junyi in The Story of Yue Fei by stating the latter were previous students of the general's military arts tutor, Zhou Tong. However, literary critic C.T. Hsia comments the connection was only a creation of the author. The republican era folktale “Swordplay Under the Moon”, by Wang Shaotang, further intertwines Yue Fei's history with the bandits by adding Wu Song to the list of Zhou's former students. The tale takes place during Wu's mission to Kaifeng, prior to the murder of his brother. Zhou tutors Wu in the "rolling dragon" style of swordplay during his one month stay in the capital city. It also says Zhou is sworn brothers with the “Flowery Monk” Lu Zhishen and shares a nickname with the executioner-turned-bandit Cai Fu.

Frank Chin's novel, Donald Duk, contains many references to the Water Margin. Song Jiang and Li Kui make several appearances in the protagonist's dreams.

Two characters in the popular Japanese novel series Saiunkoku Monogatari, Shi Seiran and Rou Ensei, have histories vaguely resembling those of Chai Jin and Yan Qing, and are nicknamed "Small Whirlwind" and "King of the Staff".
A Hong Kong comic series was also drawn by the popular Hong Kong comic artist, Li Zhiqing.

Video games

A character named "The Black Whirlwhind" in the RPG Jade Empire is also obviously inspired by Li Kui.

The game Water Margin Online is adapted from the story of Water Margin.

The novel inspired the Japanese console role-playing game series Gensou Suikoden, as well as an earlier military strategy game by Koei, called Bandit Kings of Ancient China.

Data East released a fighting game which was known under three different titles. Suiko Enbu in Japan, Outlaws of The Lost Dynasty in the U.S. and Dark Legend on the American Sega Saturn. The game's characters are inspired by the Water Margin story.

Nicknames of the 108 heroes:
http://homepage3.nifty.com/suikosai/dankin_dir/dankin_28.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Margin
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Water_Margin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Water_Margin

Water Margin characters | Water Margin | Chinese classic novels

Romance of Three Kingdoms (三國演義)

Romance of Three Kingdoms (三國演義)

Alternative Names (異名):
三國演義, 三国演义, Romance of Three Kingdoms

Romance of the Three Kingdoms (traditional Chinese: 三國演義; simplified Chinese: 三国演义; pinyin: sānguó yǎnyì), written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a Chinese historical novel based upon events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era, starting in 168 and ending with the reunification of the land in 280.

It is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels (四大名著) of Chinese literature, with a grand total of 800,000 words, 1191 characters, and 120 chapters.

Overview

Myths from the Three Kingdoms period existed as oral traditions before any written compilations. In these popular stories, the characters typically took on exaggerated characteristics, often becoming immortals or supernatural beings with magical powers. With their focus on the history of Han Chinese, the stories grew in popularity during the reign of the foreign Mongol emperors of the Yuan Dynasty (元朝). During the succeeding Míng Dynasty, an interest in plays and novels resulted in further expansions and retelling of the stories.

The earliest attempt to combine these stories into a written work was Sanguozhi Pinghua (三國誌評話，三国志评话; Sānguózhì Pínghuà), literally "Story of Sanguozhi", published sometime between 1321 and 1323. This version combined themes of legend, magic, and morality to appeal to the peasant class. Elements of reincarnation and karma were woven into this version of the story.

The Romance of the Three Kingdoms as we know it today is attributed to Luo Guanzhong, written between 1330 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period). It was written in partly vernacular and partly Classical Chinese and was considered the standard text for 300 years. Luo made use of available historical records, including the Records of the Three Kingdoms compiled by Chen Shou, which covered events from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in AD 184 up to the unification of the three kingdoms under the Jin Dynasty in AD 280. Luo Guanzhong also included material from Tang Dynasty poetic works, Yuan Dynasty operas and his own personal interpretation of elements such as virtue and legitimacy. Luo combined this historical knowledge with a gift for storytelling to create a rich tapestry of personalities, and initially published it in 24 volumes. During Kangxi's reign in the Qing Dynasty, Mao Zonggang (毛宗岗) significantly edited the text, fitting it into 120 chapters. Nowadays, Mao's version is the most common.

This novel reflects the Confucian values which were prominent at the time it was written. According to Confucian moral standards, loyalty to one's family, friends, and superiors were important measures for distinguishing good and bad people. In the novel, characters who were not loyal to the collapsing Han Dynasty are portrayed as bad people; on the contrary, modern mainstream ideology in Communist China would say that the deeply suffering masses were trying to overthrow the ruling feudal lords.

Story

It must be understood that one of the greatest achievements of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms is the extreme complexity of its stories and characters. The novel is studded with numerous "mini-stories", many of which could be developed into full-length novels in their own right (the Battle of Red Cliffs and the treatment of Guan Yu by Hua Tuo being two examples). As such, the following effort only serves as a very high level summary of the entire story:

The Yellow Turban Rebellion

The story begins in the last years of the Han Dynasty when incompetent eunuchs deceived the emperor and banished good officials. The government had become extremely corrupt on all levels, leading to widespread deterioration of the empire. During the reign of the penultimate Han emperor, Emperor Ling, the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out under the leadership of Zhang Jiao, who allegedly practiced Taoist wizardry and held immortal powers. Zhang pretended to be a traveling healer curing people of sickness while secretly inciting them to revolt. In this time of turmoil, many of the major characters are introduced; Liu Bei (劉備), Guan Yu (關羽), Zhang Fei (張飛), Cao Cao (曹操), Sun Jian (孫堅), etc.

The rebellion was barely suppressed by imperial troops under the command of He Jin, Emperor Ling’s brother-in-law and the Supreme Commander of the armies of the Central Government. Fearing his growing power, the eunuchs under Zhang Rang lured He Jin alone into the palace following Emperor Ling's death and murder that was orchestrated by his rivals. His stunned guards, led by Yuan Shao, responded by charging into the palace, which turned into an indiscriminate slaughter. In the ensuing confusion, the child Emperor Shao and the Prince of Chenliu (later Emperor Xian) disappeared from the palace.

Dong Zhuo's tyrannical rule

Soon, the Emperor and the Prince were discovered by soldiers belonging to the warlord Dong Zhuo from Western Liang, who proceeded to seize control of the capital under the pretext of protecting the emperor. Dǒng later had Emperor Shao deposed and replaced with the Prince of Chenliu, who became Emperor Xian. Under Dong Zhuo’s violent rule, the people suffered greatly. There were assassination attempts on him by both the court physician Wu Fu and Cao Cao but both attempts failed.

Cao Cao managed to escape and issued an edict in the emperor's name to all governors, calling them to remove Dong Zhuo from power. Under general Yuan Shao, 18 governors and nobles joined forces in a campaign against Dong Zhuo, but undermined by poor leadership and conflict of interest, they only managed to drive him from the capital Luoyang to Chang'an. However, Dong Zhuo was later betrayed and murdered by his own foster son Lü Bu, from a dispute over the beautiful Diaochan (貂蟬), in a scheme orchestrated by minister Wang Yun (王允).

Conflict among the various warlords and nobles

In the meantime, however, the empire was already disintegrating into civil war. Sun Jian, governor of Changsha, found the Imperial Jade Seal at the bottom of a well in the ruins of Luoyang but secretly kept it for his own purposes, further weakening royal authority. Without a strong central government, warlords began to rise up and fight each other for land and power. In the north, Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan were at war, and in the south, Sun Jian and Liu Biao. Many others, even those without title or land, such as Cao Cao and Liu Bei, were also starting to build up power.

Cao Cao took Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo’s former subordinates Li Jue and Guo Si and established the new court in Xuchang. Even more powerful now with the emperor in his control, Cao Cao quickly subdued his rivals such as Yuan Shu, Lu Bu and Zhang Xiu, culminating in his greatest military victory, over Yuan Shao in the famous Battle of Guandu despite being outnumbered 10-to-1. Cao Cao pursued the defeated Yuan clan and finally united northern China, which later served as the foundation for the Kingdom of Wei.

Sun Ce builds a dynasty in Jiangdong

Meanwhile, an ambush had violently concluded Sun Jian's life in a war with Liu Biao, fulfilling his own rash oath to heaven. His eldest son Sun Ce (孫策) then delivered the Imperial Jade Seal as tribute to rising royal pretender Yuan Shu (袁術) of Huainan, in exchange for much needed reinforcements. Now, like the proverbial tiger that has been given claws, he soon secured himself a state in the rich riverlands of Jiangdong, on which the Kingdom of Wu (吳) would eventually be founded. Tragically, Sun Ce also died at the height of his career from illness under stress of his terrifying encounter with the ghost of Yu Ji (干吉), a venerable magician whom he had falsely accused and executed in jealousy. However, his successor and younger brother Sun Quan (孫權), led by skilled advisors Zhou Yu (周瑜) and Zhang Zhao (張昭), proved to be a masterful and charismatic ruler, inspiring hidden talents from across the land such as Lu Su (鲁肃) to join his service, while raising a strong military which would truly receive a trial by fire in Cao Cao’s great southern campaign.

Liu Bei's unrealized ambition

Liu Bei, along with his sworn brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei had sworn allegiance to the Han Dynasty (in the famous Oath of the Peach Garden) and pledged to do their best to serve the emperor and the common people. However, their goals and ambitions had not been realized till the later part of the novel. Liu Bei, ever since he had successfully quelled the Yellow Turban Rebellion, was not recognized for his efforts and was made only the magistrate of a small county. Later, Liu Bei joined Gongsun Zan and participated in the war against Dong Zhuo. Cao Cao invaded Xuzhou (徐州) as a revenge against Tao Qian (陶潛), the governor of Xuzhou who unknowingly allowed his subordinate to kill Cao Cao’s father. Liu Bei led his troops from Pingyuan to help Tao Qian and Tao passed on his post as Governor of Xuzhou to Liu Bei before he died. At that same time, Lu Bu was at war with Cao Cao as he also longed to dominate China ever since he had killed Dong Zhuo. Lu Bu was defeated by Cao Cao and he sought refuge under Liu Bei. Later, Lu Bu repaid Liu Bei’s kindness with evil and seized control of Xuzhou. Liu Bei was forced to join forces with Cao Cao and they defeated Lu Bu. Lu Bu was executed and Liu Bei became officially recognized by Emperor Xian as the Emperor’s Uncle. Liu Bei plotted with some officials to kill Cao Cao as Cao Cao wielded far too much power and had the intention of usurping the throne. Liu Bei failed to kill Cao Cao as the plot was exposed. He seized control of Xuzhou but lost to Cao Cao when Cao Cao led his troops to conquer Xuzhou. Liu Bei got control of Runan with help from some former Yellow Turban rebels but was defeated once again by Cao Cao in battle. Liu Bei had no choice but to move to Jingzhou to seek Liu Biao’s protection. Liu Biao treated Liu Bei with respect and put him in charge of Xinye (新野). At Xinye, Liu Bei recruited the talented Zhuge Liang (諸葛亮) personally and slowly built up his forces.

Battle of the Red Cliffs (赤壁之戰)

Cao Cao, who declared himself the Prime Minister, led his troops to attack southern China after uniting the north. At Xinye, he was defeated twice by Liu Bei’s forces but Liu Bei lost Xinye and had to move to Jingzhou. Unfortunately, Liu Biao had died by then and left Jingzhou split between his two sons Liu Qi (劉琦) and Liu Cong (劉琮). Liu Bei led the civilians of Xinye to Xiangyang (襄陽), where Liu Cong ruled but Liu Bei was denied entry. Liu Cong later surrendered to Cao Cao, and Liu Bei had no choice but to move to Jiangxia where Liu Qi ruled. On the way, Liu Bei and the civilians were pursued by Cao Cao’s troops and several innocent civilians were killed. Liu Bei and his men managed to reach Jiangxia where he established a strong foothold against Cao Cao’s invasion.

To resist Cao Cao’s invasion, Liu Bei sent Zhuge Liang to persuade Sun Quan in Jiangdong to form an alliance. Zhuge Liang managed to persuade Sun Quan to form an alliance with Liu Bei against Cao Cao and stayed in Jiangdong as a temporary advisor. Sun Quan placed Zhou Yu in command of the forces of Jiangdong (East Wu) to defend against Cao Cao’s invasion. Zhou Yu felt that the talented Zhuge Liang would become a future threat to East Wu and tried several times to kill Zhuge, but failed. In the end, he had no choice but to co-operate with Zhuge Liang for the time being as Cao Cao’s armies were at the border. Cao Cao was defeated at the Battle of Red Cliffs (赤壁之戰) by the combined forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan and forced to flee back to Jingzhou.

Tension between Liu Bei and Sun Quan

After the great battle at the Red Cliff, East Wu and Liu Bei vied for control of Jingzhou. Zhou Yu led the troops of East Wu to attack Jingzhou and gained a victory, but eventually Jingzhou ended up in Liu Bei’s hands, as Zhuge Liang had advised Liu Bei to seize Jingzhou while Zhou Yu and Cao Cao’s forces were at war. Zhou Yu was extremely unhappy and reported the matter to Sun Quan. Sun Quan dispatched Lu Su to Jingzhou to negotiate with Liu Bei for Jingzhou. Again and again, Liu Bei refused to hand over Jingzhou to East Wu. Sun Quan had no choice but to use new strategies suggested by Zhou Yu to take Jingzhou. One of these was the Beauty Scheme, in which Sun Quan lured Liu Bei to Jiangdong (where he intended to hold Liu Bei hostage in exchange for Jingzhou) by pretending to betroth his younger sister to Liu Bei. However, Zhuge Liang outwitted Zhou Yu, and Liu Bei returned to Jingzhou safely with his new wife. Zhou Yu tried and failed repeatedly to take Jingzhou. After being infuriated by Zhuge Liang twice, Zhou Yu eventually coughed out blood. The third time, he coughed out even more, and died unconscious.

Ma Chao (馬超)

In the northwest, Ma Chao (馬超) started a campaign against Cao Cao to avenge his father, Ma Teng (馬騰), who was killed by Cao Cao. Ma Chao’s forces were formidable as he had the support of Han Sui (韓遂) and troops from the Qiang (羌族) minority. However, Cao Cao managed to defeat Ma Chao’s forces by using cunning strategies to make Ma Chao and Han Sui turn against each other. Han Sui defected to Cao Cao and Ma Chao was left stranded. Ma Chao later sought refuge under Zhang Lu (張魯) of Hanzhong, and eventually joined Liu Bei.

Liu Bei controls Xichuan and Jingzhou

After Zhou Yu’s death, relations between Liu Bei and Sun Quan deteriorated, but not to the point of outright war. Following Zhuge Liang's advice, Liu Bei invaded and conquered Xichuan (淅川县), where the incompetent noble Liu Zhang ruled. He also took Hanzhong, which had been in Cao Cao’s control. Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong (漢中), while Cao Cao had himself promoted from Prime Minister to King of Wei; Sun Quan was known as the Duke of Wu. At this time, Liu Bei ruled a vast area of land from Jingzhou to Sichuan (四川) in the west. This would later serve as a strong foundation for the founding of the Kingdom of Shu-Han (蜀漢). Meanwhile, Sun Quan and Cao Cao were also at war, with defeats and victories for both sides at the battles of Ruxu and Hefei.

The situation among the three major powers almost reached a stalemate after this, until Cao Cao died due to a brain tumor. The following year, Cao Cao (曹操)’s son Cao Pi (曹丕) forced Emperor Xian to abdicate, ending the Han Dynasty which had lasted for centuries. Cao Pi proclaimed himself emperor and renamed his dynasty Cao Wei. In response to this, Liu Bei declared himself Emperor of Shu-Han, to signify that he still carried on the bloodline of the Han royal family, but was based in Shu.

Death of Guan Yu

Sun Quan, tired of Liu Bei’s repeated refusals to hand over Jingzhou, made plans to retake it. He made peace with Cao Cao and was bestowed the title of Prince of Wu. Liu Bei left his sworn brother Guan Yu in charge of Jingzhou, and Guan led the Jingzhou troops to attack Cao Cao. Sun Quan took advantage of the situation and sent Lu Meng (呂蒙) to seize Jingzhou. Lu Meng disguised his troops as merchants and finessed a quiet entry. As Guan was besieging Wei general Cao Ren (曹仁), Lu Meng's forces attacked Guan from the rear , and routed his army with ease. In desperate retreat, his army scattered, Guan Yu was captured. Sun Quan had him beheaded after he refused to renounce his loyalty to Liu Bei. Liu Bei deeply grieved the death of Guan Yu and the loss of Jingzhou. He was already planning to avenge Guan Yu when he heard that his other sworn brother, Zhang Fei, had been murdered in his sleep by subordinates who then fled to Eastern Wu. Liu Bei was determined to avenge both brothers. Disregarding advice from Zhuge Liang and others, Liu Bei led a formidable army of 750,000 to attack East Wu.

The Battle of Yiling

Sun Quan offered Liu Bei the return of the Jing province and of his sister (Liu's ex-wife Sun Ren). Liu Bei's advisers, including Zhuge Liang, urged him to accept these terms, but Liu persisted. After initial victories, a series of strategic mistakes due to the impetuosity of Liu Bei led to the cataclysmic defeat of Han troops in the Battle of Yiling (猇亭之戰). However, Lu Xun (陸遜), the commander of Wu who spearheaded the war against Shu-Han, refrained from pursuing Liu Bei’s defeated troops. Famous generals from both Wu and Shu-Han forces perished. Lu Xun’s caution was vindicated when Cao Pi launched an invasion against Wu, thinking that Wu forces would still be abroad. The invasion was crushed by strong Wu resistance, coupled with a plague outbreak.

Meanwhile, in Baidicheng (白帝城), sixty-two year old Liu Bei, ailing after three years of neglecting his health, died, leaving his young son Liu Shan (劉禪) in the care of Zhuge Liang. In a moving final conversation between Liu Bei and Zhuge Liang, Liu Bei asked Zhuge Liang to assume the imperial throne himself in place of Liu Shan, should Liu Shan prove to be inept. He refused to do so, and swore that he would remain faithful to the trust that Liu Bei had for him. This promise was to be a raison d'être for the rest of Zhuge Liang's life.

Zhuge Liang calmly fends off five armies

Cao Pi, following Sima Yi (司馬懿)’s advice, induced several forces, including Sun Quan, turncoat Shu general Meng Da (孟達), Meng Huo (孟獲) of the Nanman (南蠻), and the Qiang (羌族) tribe, to attack Shu Han, in coordination with a Cao Wei army. Zhuge Liang successfully deployed the Shu Han troops and caused the five armies to retreat without shedding a single drop of blood. An envoy from Shu Han named Deng Zhi (鄧芝) subsequently persuaded Sun Quan to renew its former alliance with Shu Han.

In one of his final strokes of brilliance, Zhuge Liang personally led the Shu troops to subdue the southern barbarian king Meng Huo of the Nanman tribe. The barbarian troops were no match for the Shu troops and Zhuge Liang captured Meng Huo seven times by using cunning strategies. The first six times, Meng Huo complained that he had been captured by trickery, and had no chance to fight a real battle with the Shu troops. Zhuge Liang agreed to let him go every time, allowing him to come back again for another battle. The seventh time, Zhuge Liang wanted to release Meng Huo once again but this time Meng Huo refused. Meng Huo was ashamed of rebelling against Shu-Han and was so deeply touched by Zhuge Liang’s benevolence that he swore allegiance to Shu-Han forever.

The battle of wits between Zhuge Liang and Sima Yi

At this time, Cao Pi also died of illness and was succeeded by Cao Rui. Ma Chao died of illness as well, age 48. In Jiangdong, Sun Quan declared himself Emperor of East Wu. Zhuge Liang then turned his eyes northwards, and planned to attack Wei to restore the Han Dynasty as he had promised Liu Bei at the latter’s deathbed. However, his days were numbered and Shu was far too weak to overcome the material superiority of Wei. His last significant victory against Wei was probably the defection of Jiang Wei, a young general whose brilliance paralleled his own.

Zhuge Liang had all along had a chronic illness, which was compounded when he refused to rest even into the early hours of the morning, so that he would be able to complete his analysis of the battlegrounds or to formulate his next plan. He finally died of sickness at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, while leading a stalemated battle against the Wei commander, Sima Yi, with his far superior force. As a final ploy, he set up a statue of himself to scare off Sima Yi in order to buy time for the Shu army to retreat.

The Sima family controls Wei

The long years of battle between Wei and Shu saw many changes in the ruling Cao family in Wei. The Cao family gradually grew weak after the death of Cao Rui and Sima Yi slowly plotted to usurp the throne. Sima Yi removed Cao Shuang, a powerful noble of Wei from power with a cunning strategy and since then the power of Wei had been in the hands of Sima Yi. After Sima Yi’s death, his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao continued wielding the power of Wei in their hands. Sima Zhao had Cao Fang removed from the throne and replaced Cao Fang with Cao Mao. Later, Cao Mao tried to assassinate Sima Zhao, who had the intention of usurping the throne, but was killed by Sima Zhao’s subordinate. Sima Zhao pretended to grieve and mourn Cao Mao’s death and even later had his subordinate, whom he ordered to kill Cao Mao, executed for committing regicide.

End of the Three Kingdoms

Jiang Wei, who inherited Zhuge Liang’s brilliance, carried on Zhuge Liang’s campaign against Wei for a bitter three decades. However, Liu Bei’s son Liu Shan did not heed Jiang Wei’s advice and listened to the evil eunuch Huang Hao instead. In order to escape from the evil officials in the court, Jiang Wei decided to surrender his military power for the time being and went off to Tazhong. The Wei general Deng Ai, who was at war with Jiang Wei, took the chance to attack Shu-Han. Deng Ai and his troops arrived in front of Chengdu, the capital city of Shu-Han, by taking a shortcut. Liu Shan surrendered without a battle and ended the Kingdom of Shu-Han. Jiang Wei planned to rebuild Shu-Han by uniting forces with a Wei general, Zhong Hui, who was at odds with Deng Ai. However, he was not able to see it to the end when his heartache grew intolerable in the midst of the final battle. He then killed himself with a sword, marking the last stand of Shu.

In Eastern Wu, there was internal conflict among the nobles ever since the death of Sun Quan. Zhuge Ke tried to usurp the throne of Eastern Wu but was assassinated by Sun Lin. Later, Sun Lin himself also lusted for power and had the emperor of Eastern Wu Sun Liang deposed and replaced with Sun Xiu. Sun Xiu sought help from the old veteran general Ding Feng and had Sun Lin assassinated, and the power of Eastern Wu went back into the hands of the emperor. This did not last for long.

In Wei, Sima Yan, son of Sima Zhao, finally forced the last Wei emperor Cao Huan to abdicate in the same manner as Cao Pi had forced Emperor Xian of Han to abdicate. Sima Yan established the Jin Dynasty in AD 265, declaring himself the first emperor of the new dynasty. The Kingdom of Wei came to an end.

Sima Yan led the Jin troops to attack Eastern Wu and succeeded in conquering Eastern Wu after a long period of struggle when the last tyrannical emperor of Eastern Wu, Sun Hao surrendered. Thus the Three Kingdoms period concluded after almost a century of civil strife.

Literary criticism

Luo Guanzhong's re-telling of this story also gives a window into the politics of his time. The later Míng Emperor Wanlì had officially elevated Guan Yu to the position of a god, Lord Guan, to promote Guan Yu's characteristics of bravery and extreme fidelity (characteristics the emperor no doubt wanted to promote in his subjects). Recent research finds in Luo Guanzhong's Guan Yu a fascinating reflection of Chinese culture under Míng rule, the author complying with the program of imperial propaganda while also subtly subverting it.

Besides the famous oath, many Chinese proverbs in use today are derived from the novel:

"Wives and children are as clothing, but brothers are as limbs." (妻子如衣服, 兄弟如手足) (a broken marriage/family can be easily sewn back together, but a damaged friendship can never be repaired or replaced. Some Chinese people also interpret this phrase to mean, A wife can be changed, like laundry, but friendship can never be replaced)
"Speak of 'Cao Cao' and Cao Cao arrives." (一說曹操, 曹操就到) (equivalent to "speak of the devil" in English when a person under discussion suddenly appears)

"Three inept tailors (are enough to) overcome one Zhuge Liang." (三個臭皮匠, 勝過一個諸葛亮, or more colloquially, 三個臭皮匠, 賽過諸葛亮) (Three incapable persons if joined up will always overpower one capable person)

"Losing your wife and your army." (賠了夫人又折兵) (In reference to Lady Sun leaving for Liu Bei. Representing a bad deal in which a person loses on both sides of the deal.)

Buddhist aspects

Romance of the Three Kingdoms recorded stories of a Buddhist monk, who was a friend of the renowned general Guan Yu and informed him of an assassination attempt. As the novel was written in the Ming Dynasty, more than 1000 years after the era, these stories showed that Buddhism had long been a significant ingredient of the mainstream culture and may not be historically accurate. Luo Guanzhong preserved these descriptions from earlier versions of the novel to support his portrait of Guan Yu as a faithful and a man of virtue. Guan Yu was, from then onwards, known as Guan Gong, "Lord Guan."

Popular saying

Regarding this novel and another Chinese classic Water Margin, there is a popular saying in China that goes: "少不讀水滸, 老不讀三國", translated as "The young shouldn't read Water Margin while the old shouldn't read The Three Kingdoms." The former depicts the lives of outlaws and their defiance with the established social system. Along with the frequent violence, brawls, passionate brotherhood and an emphasis on machismo, it could easily have a negative influence on young boys. The latter presents all kinds of sophisticated stratagem, deceptions, frauds, trickeries, traps and snares employed by the three kingdoms and their individual characters to compete with each other, which might tempt the experienced old readers (the elderly are traditionally well respected, trusted and considered wise and kindhearted in Chinese society) to use them to harm other people. Also, old people are supposed to "know the will of the heavens" (says Confucius). They shouldn't exhaust or strain themselves with always having to consider how to deceive others.

Cultural references

The story of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been told in numerous forms including television series, manga and video games.

Chinese Manhua

The Ravages of Time is a Chinese Manhua which retells the events of Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The drawing style is dark and grim, and while it keeps the main plot intact, the finer details are dramatized.

Japanese Manga and Animation

Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been adapted into several comic versions in Japan, varying in levels of historical accuracy and loyalty to the original novel and popular tradition. Some of the most widely read in Japan are Sangokushi (which is also the Japanese reading for "Romance of the Three Kingdoms") by Yokoyama Mitsuteru (Ushio), Sōten Kōro by King Gonta (Kodansha), Ryūrōden by Yoshito Yamahara (Kodansha), and Tenchi o Kurau by Motomiya Hiroshi (Shueisha).

The manga and animation Ikkitousen (一騎當千) is loosely based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms, but the characters in the story refer to the names in the Japanese version of the book. In the series most characters appear to have similar fates to the characters of the same name from the classic novel.

The story serves as the basis for SD Gundam Sangokuden: Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a manga/model kit line in the long running Musha Gundam SD Gundam series.

The manga and animation Koihime Musou (恋姫†無双) is also loosely based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Television

There are multiple television series based on this tale. The 84-episode TV serial Romance of the Three Kingdoms was aired by CCTV, while the Japanese anime series Yokoyama Mitsuteru Sangokushi ran for 47 episodes on TV Tokyo between 1991 and 1992, focusing on the stories before the Battle of Chi Bi.

In 2007, a new anime series was created, focusing very loosely on the tale, it is called Koutetsu Sangokushi

Computer and video games

There are also PC games based on this tale. The best known of these games are from Koei, which released eleven Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy titles, usually only released in Asia, excluding expansions (known as 'PK' packs). These strategy titles are one of their most famous franchises and were originally based on the same concept as the earlier Nobunaga's Ambition. This series is also released on video games consoles such as the NES, Super NES, PlayStation and PlayStation 2. Unlike their PC counterparts, the console versions are much more frequently found outside of Asia.

Another popular Three Kingdoms game series by Koei is Dynasty Warriors, which uses an action "beat 'em up"-style with tactical elements. The series has been released for PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation3, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation Portable, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and the PC. It has also generated a spinoff series, Dynasty Tactics.

Also seen are the Sango Fighter series which portrayed the generals as characters in a two-dimensional fighting game.

A 2D computer role-playing game, entitled Fantasia Sanguo, was released by Taiwanese game company UserJoy Technology. It uses the events of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms as the backdrop for the plot. The re-telling of the story also involves traditional Chinese supernatural entities and concepts.

Capcom released various games based on Motomiya Hiroshi's manga Tenchi o Kurau. These were "brawler" games released for the arcade known as Dynasty Wars, and its sequel, Warriors of Fate. There are also two console role playing games for the NES, the first of which was released in North America as Destiny of an Emperor.

Three installments of a similar game to Warriors of Fate, Knights of Valour, were released by International Games System. These are best described as side-scrolling "beat-'em-up" games, similar to the Double Dragon arcade games.

Sega released a hybrid card/board/strategy game entitled Sangokushi Taisen, in which players manipulate cards on a tabletop to move military units in order to take destroy enemy castles.

In the MMORPG MapleStory, there are a number of equipment suits that are named after and designed to look like characters from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

The real-time strategy game Three Kingdoms: Fate of the Dragon, released for the PC by Eidos Interactive in 2001, portrays all of the events appearing in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms story.

See also

Twenty-Four Histories
Records of Three Kingdoms
List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms (TV series)
Personages of the Three Kingdoms
Timeline of the Three Kingdoms period
Military history of the Three Kingdoms
Dynasty Warriors
List of Dynasty Warriors characters
Chinese literature
The Yellow Turban Rebellion
Battle of Hulao Pass
Battle of Red Cliffs
Battle of Wu Zhang Plains
The Battle of Red Cliff (film)
Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (三國志見龍卸甲)
End of Han Dynasty (漢朝末年)

Links

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Three_Kingdoms
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology

Chinese classic novels | Three Kingdoms | Historical novels

Journey to the West (西遊記)

Journey to the West (西遊記)

Alternative Names (異名):
西遊記, 西游记, Journey to the West

Journey to the West (traditional Chinese: 西遊記; simplified Chinese: 西游记; pinyin: Xīyóujì; Wade-Giles: Hsiyu-chi) is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Originally published anonymously in the 1590s during the Ming Dynasty, and even though no direct evidence of its authorship survives, it has been ascribed to the scholar Wú Chéng'ēn since the 20th century.

The tale is also often known simply as Monkey. This was one title used for a popular, abridged translation by Arthur Waley. The Waley translation has also been published as Adventures of the Monkey God; and Monkey: [A] Folk Novel of China; and The Adventures of Monkey.

The novel is a fictionalized account of the legends around the Buddhist monk Xuánzàng's pilgrimage to India during the Táng dynasty in order to obtain Buddhist religious texts called sutras. The Bodhisattva Guānyīn, on instruction from the Buddha, gives this task to the monk and his three protectors in the form of disciples — namely Sūn Wùkōng, Zhū Bājiè and Shā Wùjìng — together with a dragon prince who acts as Xuánzàng's horse mount. These four characters have agreed to help Xuánzàng as an atonement for past sins.

Some scholars propose that the book satirises the effete Chinese government at the time. Journey to the West has a strong background in Chinese folk religion, Chinese mythology and value systems; the pantheon of Taoist immortals and Buddhist bodhisattvas is still reflective of Chinese folk religious beliefs today.

Part of the novel's enduring popularity comes from the fact that it works on multiple levels: it is a first-rate adventure story, a dispenser of spiritual insight, and an extended allegory in which the group of pilgrims journeying toward India stands for the individual journeying toward enlightenment.

Synopsis

The novel comprises 100 chapters. These can be divided into four very unequal parts. The first, which includes chapters 1–7, is really a self-contained prequel to the main body of the story. It deals entirely with the earlier exploits of Sūn Wùkōng, a monkey born from a stone nourished by the Five Elements, who learns the art of the Tao, 72 polymorphic transformations, combat and secrets of immortality, and through guile and force makes a name for himself as the Qítiān Dàshèng (simplified Chinese: 齐天大圣; traditional Chinese: 齊天大聖), or "Great Sage Equal to Heaven". His powers grow to match the forces of all of the Eastern (Taoist) deities, and the prologue culminates in Sūn's rebellion against Heaven, during a time when he garnered a post in the celestial bureaucracy. Hubris proves his downfall when the Buddha manages to trap him under a mountain for five hundred years.

Only following this introductory story is the nominal main character, Xuánzàng, introduced. Chapters 8–12 provide his early biography and the background to his great journey. Dismayed that "the land of the South knows only greed, hedonism, promiscuity, and sins", the Buddha instructs the Bodhisattva Guānyīn to search Táng China for someone to take the Buddhist sutras of "transcendence and persuasion for good will" back to the East. Part of the story here also relates to how Xuánzàng becomes a monk (as well as revealing his past life as the "Golden Cicada" and comes about being sent on this pilgrimage by the Emperor Táng Tàizōng, who previously escaped death with the help of an underworld official).

The third and longest section of the work is chapters 13–99, an episodic adventure story which combines elements of the quest as well as the picaresque. The skeleton of the story is Xuánzàng's quest to bring back Buddhist scriptures from Vulture Peak in India, but the flesh is provided by the conflict between Xuánzàng's disciples and the various evils that beset him on the way.

The scenery of this section is, nominally, the sparsely populated lands along the Silk Road between China and India, including Xinjiang, Turkestan, and Afghanistan. The geography described in the book is, however, almost entirely fantastic; once Xuánzàng departs Cháng'ān, the Táng capital and crosses the frontier (somewhere in Gansu province), he finds himself in a wilderness of deep gorges and tall mountains, all inhabited by flesh-eating demons who regard him as a potential meal (since his flesh was believed to give Immortality to whoever eats it), with here and there a hidden monastery or royal city-state amid the wilds.

The episodic structure of this section is to some extent formulaic. Episodes consist of 1–4 chapters, and usually involve Xuánzàng being captured and his life threatened, while his disciples try to find an ingenious (and often violent) way of liberating him. Although some of Xuánzàng's predicaments are political and involve ordinary human beings, they more frequently consist of run-ins with various goblins and ogres, many of whom turn out to be the earthly manifestations of heavenly beings (whose sins will be negated by eating the flesh of Xuanzang) or animal-spirits with enough Taoist spiritual merit to assume semi-human forms.

Chapters 13–22 do not follow this structure precisely, as they introduce Xuánzàng's disciples, who, inspired or goaded by Guānyīn, meet and agree to serve him along the way, in order to atone for their sins in their past lives.

The first is Sun Wukong (simplified Chinese: 孙悟空; traditional Chinese: 孫悟空), or Monkey, previously "Great Sage Equal to Heaven", trapped by Buddha for rebelling against Heaven. He appears right away in Chapter 13. The most intelligent and violent of the disciples, he is constantly reproved for his violence by Xuánzàng. Ultimately, he can only be controlled by a magic gold band that the Bodhisattva has placed around his head, which causes him excruciating pain when Xuánzàng says certain magic words.

The second, appearing in 19, is Zhu Bajie (simplified Chinese: 猪八戒; traditional Chinese: 豬八戒), literally Eight-precepts Pig, sometimes translated as Pigsy or just Pig. He was previously Marshal Tīan Péng (simplified Chinese: 天蓬元帅; traditional Chinese: 天蓬元帥), commander of the Heavenly Naval forces, banished to the mortal realm for flirting with the Princess of the Moon Chang'e. He is characterized by his insatiable appetites for food and sex, and is constantly looking for a way out of his duties, but is always kept in line by Sūn Wùkōng.

The third, appearing in chapter 22, is the river-ogre Sha Wujing (simplified Chinese: 沙悟净; traditional Chinese: 沙悟淨), also translated as Friar Sand or Sandy. He was previously Great General who Folds the Curtain (simplified Chinese: 卷帘大将; traditional Chinese: 捲簾大將), banished to the mortal realm for dropping (and shattering) a crystal goblet of the Heavenly Queen Mother. He is a quiet but generally dependable character, who serves as the straight foil to the comic relief of Sūn and Zhū.

Possibly to be counted as a fourth disciple is the third prince of the Dragon-King, Yùlóng Sāntàizǐ (simplified Chinese: 玉龙三太子; traditional Chinese: 玉龍三太子), who was sentenced to death for setting fire to his father's great pearl. He was saved by Guānyīn from execution to stay and wait for his call of duty. He appears first in chapter 15, but has almost no speaking role, as throughout most of the story he appears in the transformed shape of a horse that Xuánzàng rides on.

Chapter 22, where Shā is introduced, also provides a geographical boundary, as the river of quicksand that the travelers cross brings them into a new "continent". Chapters 23–86 take place in the wilderness, and consist of 24 episodes of varying length, each characterized by a different magical monster or evil magician. There are impassably wide rivers, flaming mountains, a kingdom ruled by women, a lair of seductive spider-spirits, and many other fantastic scenarios. Throughout the journey, the four brave disciples have to fend off attacks on their master and teacher Xuánzàng from various monsters and calamities.

It is strongly suggested that most of these calamities are engineered by fate and/or the Buddha, as, while the monsters who attack are vast in power and many in number, no real harm ever comes to the four travelers. Some of the monsters turn out to be escaped heavenly animals belonging to bodisattvas or Taoist sages and spirits. Towards the end of the book there is a scene where the Buddha literally commands the fulfillment of the last disaster, because Xuánzàng is one short of the eighty-one disasters he needs to attain Buddhahood.

In chapter 87, Xuánzàng finally reaches the borderlands of India, and chapters 87–99 present magical adventures in a somewhat more mundane (though still exotic) setting. At length, after a pilgrimage said to have taken fourteen years (the text actually only provides evidence for nine of those years, but presumably there was room to add additional episodes) they arrive at the half-real, half-legendary destination of Vulture Peak, where, in a scene simultaneously mystical and comic, Xuánzàng receives the scriptures from the living Buddha.

Chapter 100, the last of all, quickly describes the return journey to the Táng Empire, and the aftermath in which each traveler receives a reward in the form of posts in the bureaucracy of the heavens. Sūn Wùkōng and Xuánzàng achieve Buddhahood, Wùjìng becomes an arhat, the dragon is made a Naga, and Bājiè, whose good deeds have always been tempered by his greed, is promoted to an altar cleanser (i.e. eater of excess offerings at altars).

Historical context

The classic story of the Journey to the West was based on real events. In real life, Xuanzang (born c. 602 - 664) was a monk at Jingtu Temple in late-Sui Dynasty and early-Tang Dynasty Chang'an. Motivated by the poor quality of Chinese translations of Buddhist scripture at the time, Xuanzang left Chang'an in 629, despite the border being closed at the time due to war with the Gokturks. Helped by sympathetic Buddhists, he travelled via Gansu and Qinghai to Kumul (Hami), thence following the Tian Shan mountains to Turfan. He then crossed what are today Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan, into Gandhara, reaching India in 630. Xuanzang travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent for the next thirteen years, visiting important Buddhist pilgrimage sites and studying at the ancient university at Nalanda.

Xuanzang left India in 643 and arrived back in Chang'an in 646 to a warm reception by Emperor Taizong of Tang. He joined Da Ci'en Monastery (Monastery of Great Maternal Grace), where he led the building of the Big Wild Goose Pagoda in order to store the scriptures and icons he had brought back from India. He recorded his journey in the book Journey to the West in the Great Tang Dynasty. With the support of the Emperor, he established an institute at Yuhua Gong (Palace of the Lustre of Jade) monastery dedicated to translating into Chinese the scriptures he had brought back. His translation and commentary work established him as the founder of the Dharma character school of Buddhism. Xuanzang died on March 7, 664. The Xingjiao Monastery was established in 669 to house his ashes.

Popular stories of Xuánzàng's journey were in existence long before Journey to the West was written. In these versions, dating as far back as Southern Song, a monkey character was already a primary protagonist. Before the Yuan Dynasty and early Ming, elements of the Monkey story were already seen.

Main characters

Tripitaka or Xuánzàng

Xuánzàng (玄奘) (or Táng-Sānzàng (唐三藏), meaning "Táng-dynasty monk" — Sānzàng (三藏) or "Three Baskets", referring to the Tripitaka, was a traditional honorific for a Buddhist monk) is the Buddhist monk who set out to India to retrieve the Buddhist scriptures for China. He is called Tripitaka in many English versions of the story. Although he is helpless when it comes to defending himself, the bodhisattva Guānyīn helps by finding him powerful disciples (Sūn Wùkōng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng) who aid and protect him on his journey. In return, the disciples will receive enlightenment and forgiveness for their sins once the journey is done. Along the way, they help the local inhabitants by defeating various monsters. The fact that most of the monsters and demons are trying to obtain immortality by eating Xuánzàng's flesh, and are even attracted to him as he is depicted as quite handsome, provides much of the plot in the story.

Monkey King (Emperor of Monkeys) or Sūn Wùkōng

Sūn Wùkōng is the name given to this character by his teacher, Patriarch Subhuti, and means "the one who has Achieved the Perfect Comprehension of the Extinction of both Emptiness and non-Emptiness"; he is called Monkey King or simply Monkey Emperor in English.

He was born out of a rock that had been dormant for ages in Flower Fruit Mountain that was inhabited/weathered by the sun and moon until a monkey sprang forth. He first distinguished himself by bravely entering the Cave of Water Curtains (pinyin:Shuǐlián-dòng) at the Mountains of Flowers and Fruits (Huāguǒ-shān); for this feat, his monkey tribe gave him the title of Měi-hóuwáng ("handsome monkey-king"). Later, he started making trouble in Heaven and defeated an army of 100,000 celestial soldiers, led by the Four Heavenly Kings, Erlang Shen, and Nezha. Eventually, the Jade Emperor appealed to Buddha, who subdued and trapped Wukong under a mountain. He was only saved when Xuanzang came by him on his pilgrimage and accepted him as a disciple.

His primary weapon is the rúyì-jīngū-bàng ("will-following golden-banded staff"), which he can shrink down to the size of a needle and keep behind his ear, as well as expand it to gigantic proportions (hence the "will-following" part of the name). The staff, originally a pillar supporting the undersea palace of the East Sea Dragon King, weighs 13,500 pounds, which he pulled out of its support and swung with ease. The Dragon King, not wanting him to cause any trouble, also gave him a suit of golden armor. These gifts, combined with his devouring of the peaches of immortality and three jars of immortality pills while in Heaven, plus his ordeal in an eight-trigram furnace (which gave him a steel-hard body and fiery golden eyes), makes Wukong the strongest member by far of the pilgrimage. Besides these abilities, he can also pull hairs from his body and blow on them to transform them into whatever he wishes (usually clones of himself to gain a numerical advantage in battle). Although he has mastered seventy-two methods of transformations, it does not mean that he is restricted to seventy-two different forms. He can also do a jīndǒuyún ("cloud somersault"), enabling him to travel vast distances in a single leap. Wukong uses his talents to fight demons and play pranks. However, his behavior is checked by a band placed around his head by Guanyin, which cannot be removed by Wukong himself until the journey's end. Xuanzang can tighten this band by chanting the Tightening-Crown spell (taught to him by Guanyin) whenever he needs to chastise him.

Wukong's child-like playfulness is a huge contrast to his cunning mind. This, coupled with his acrobatic skills, makes him a likeable hero, though not necessarily a good role model. His antics present a lighter side in what proposes to be a long and dangerous trip into the unknown.

Zhū Bājiè

Zhū Bājiè ("Pig of the Eight Prohibitions") is also known as Zhū Wùnéng ("Pig Awakened to Power"), and given the name Pigsy or Pig in English.

Once an immortal who was the Tiānpéng-yuánshuǎi ("Field Marshal Tianpeng") of 100,000 soldiers of the Milky Way, during a celebration of gods, he drank too much and attempted to flirt with Cháng'é, the beautiful moon goddess, resulting in his banishment into the mortal world. He was supposed to be reborn as a human, but ended up in the womb of a sow due to an error at the Reincarnation Wheel, which turned him into a half-man half-pig monster. Staying within Yúnzhan-dòng ("cloud-pathway cave"), he was commissioned by Guanyin to accompany Xuanzang to India and given the new name Zhu Wuneng.

However, Wuneng's desire for women led him to Gao Village, where he posed as a normal being and took a wife. Later, when the villagers discovered that he was a monster, Wuneng hid the girl away. At this point, Xuanzang and Wukong arrived at Gao Village and helped subdue him. Renamed Zhu Bajie by Xuanzang, he consequently joined the pilgrimage to the West.

His weapon of choice is the jiǔchǐdīngpá ("nine-tooth iron rake"). He is also capable of thirty-six transformations (as compared to Wukong's seventy-two), and can travel on clouds, but not as fast as Wukong. However, Bajie is noted for his fighting skills in the water, which he used to combat Sha Wujing, who later joined them on the journey. He is the second strongest member of the team.

Shā Wùjìng

Shā Wùjìng (literally meaning "Sand Awakened to Purity"), given the name Friar Sand or Sandy in English, was once the Curtain Raising General, who stood in attendance by the imperial chariot in the Hall of Miraculous Mist. He was exiled to the mortal world and made to look like a monster because he accidentally smashed a crystal goblet belonging to the Heavenly Queen Mother during the Peach Banquet. The now-hideous immortal took up residence in the Flowing Sands River, terrorizing the surrounding villages and travelers trying to cross the river. However, he was subdued by Sūn Wùkōng and Zhū Bājiè when the Xuānzàng party came across him. They consequently took him in to be a part of the pilgrimage to the West.

Shā Wùjìng's weapon is the yuèyáchǎn ("Crescent-Moon-Shovel" or "Monk's Spade"). Aside from that, he knows eighteen transformations and is highly effective in water combat. He is about as strong as Bājiè, and is much stronger than Wùkōng in water. However, Bājiè can beat Wujing in a test of endurance, and Wùkōng can beat him out of water.

Shā Wùjìng is known to be the most obedient, logical, and polite of the three disciples, and always takes care of his master, seldom engaging in the bickeries of his fellow-disciples. Ever reliable, he carries the luggage for the travellers. Perhaps this is why he is sometimes seen as a minor character; the lack of any particular perks confers the lack of distinguishing and/or redeeming characteristics.

Wùjìng eventually becomes an Arhat at the end of the journey, giving him a higher level of exaltation than Bājiè, who is relegated to cleaning every altar at every Buddhist temple for eternity, but is still lower spiritually than Wùkōng or Xuānzàng who are granted Buddhahood.

List of Demons

There are many demons in the story. They are listed below:

Black-Bear-Demon (pinyin: Hēixióngguài)
Yellow Wind Demon (Huángfēngguài)
Zhen Yuan Holy Man (He is not a demon, but an immortal, who got annoyed by those disciples who stole his precious immortal-fruits (Ginseng Fruits, 人参果).)
White-Bone-Demon (pinyin: Báigǔjīng)
Yellow Robe Demon (pinyin: Huángpáoguài)
Gold-Horn and Silver-Horn (pinyin: Jīnjiǎo and Yínjiǎo)
Red-Boy a.k.a. Holy Baby King (pinyin: Hóng-hái'ér; Japanese: Kōgaiji)
Tiger Power, Deer Power and Goat (or Antelope) Power
Black River Dragon Demon (Hēi Shǔi Hé Yuan Lóng Gài)
Carp Demon (Li Yu Jīng)
Green-Ox-Demon (pinyin: Qīngniújīng)
Scorpion-Demon (pinyin: Xiēzijīng)
Six Ear Monkey Demon (a.k.a Fake Sun Wukong)
Ox-Demon-King (pinyin: Niúmówáng; Japanese: Gyūmaō)
Demon Woman (Luo Cha Nǚ)
Jade-Faced Princess (pinyin: Yùmiàn-gōngzhǔ; Japanese: Gyokumen-kōshū)
Boa Demon (Hong She Jīng)
Nine-Headed Bird Demon (Jiǔ Tou Fu Ma)
Seven-Spider-Demons (pinyin: Zhīzhū-jīng)
Hundred-Eyed Taoist (Bǎi Yan Mo Jun)
Green Lion Demon (pinyin: Qīngshījīng)
White-Elephant-Demon (pinyin: Báixiàngjīng)
Falcon Demon (Sun Jīng)
Biqiu Country Minister a.k.a Deer Demon
Gold-Nosed, White Mouse Demon (Lao Shu Jīng)
Dream-Demon

Media adaptations

Stage

Journey to the West: The Musical: A stage musical which received its world premiere at the New York Musical Theatre Festival on September 25, 2006.
Monkey: Journey to the West: A stage musical version created by Chen Shi-zheng, Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett. It premiered as part of the 2007 Manchester International Festival at the Palace Theatre on June 28.
The Monkey King: A production by the Children's Theater Company in Minneapolis, MN in 2005.

Film

Monkey Goes West: The Shaw Brothers' 1966 Hong Kong film (Cantonese: Sau yau gei. Also known as "Monkey with 72 Magic". Directed by Ho Meng-Hua.
Princess Iron Fan (Tie shan gong zhu) a 1966 sequel to Monkey Goes West, adapting two episodes from the novel. Directed by Ho Meng-Hua.
Cave of the Silken Web (1967), the next film in the series. Directed by Ho Meng-Hua.
The Land of Many Perfumes (1968), the fourth film in the Shaw Brothers' series based (increasingly loosely) on Journey to the West. Directed by Ho Meng-Hua.
A Chinese Odyssey by Stephen Chow (1994).
Heavenly Legend: A 1998 film by Tai Seng Entertainment starring Kung Fu kid Sik Siu Loong is partially based on this legend.
A Chinese Tall Story: 2005 live action movie starring Nicholas Tse as Xuánzàng.
The Forbidden Kingdom: 2008 live action movie starring Jackie Chan and Jet Li which is said to be based on the Legend of the Monkey King, the same legend as the TV show Monkey.

Live action television

Monkey (1978-1980): A well-known 1970s Japanese television series based on Journey to the West translated into English by the BBC.
Journey to the West (1986): A TV series produced by CCTV.
Journey to the West (1996): A popular series produced by Hong Kong studio TVB, starring Dicky Cheung.
Journey to the West II (1998): The sequel to TVB's Journey to the West series, starring Benny Chan.
The Monkey King (2001): Sci Fi Channel's TV adaptation of this legend, also called The Lost Empire.
The Monkey King: Quest for the Sutra (2002): A loose adaptation starring Dicky Cheung, who also portrayed Sun Wukong in the 1996 TVB series.
Saiyūki (2006): A Japanese television series starring the SMAP star Shingo Katori.

Comics, manga and anime

Alakazam the Great: One of the first anime films produced by Toei Animation, a retelling of first part of the story based on the characters designed by Osamu Tezuka.
Gensōmaden Saiyūki: manga and anime series inspired by the legend. Follow-up series include Saiyūki Reload and Saiyūki Reload Gunlock.
Patalliro Saiyuki: A shōnen-ai series in both anime and manga formats with the Patalliro! cast playing out the Zaiyuji storyline with a BL twist.
Havoc in Heaven (also known as Uproar in Heaven): Original animation from China.
Iyashite Agerun Saiyūki (Iyashite Agerun Saiyuki, 癒してあげルン西遊記) : A 2007 adult anime
Monkey Magic: An animated retelling of the legend.
Monkey Typhoon: A manga and anime series based on the Journey to the West saga, following a futuristic steampunk-retelling of the legend.
Starzinger: An animated science fiction version of the story.
The Monkey King: A gruesome manga inspired by the tale.

Works referencing Journey to the West

American Born Chinese: An American graphic novel by Gene Yang. Nominated for the National Book Award (2006).
Doraemon: A special tells the story of Journey To The West casting the Doraemon characters as the characters of the legend.
Dragon Ball: Japanese manga and anime series loosely inspired by Journey to the West.
Eyeshield 21: Three of the players for the Shinryuji Nagas are referred to as the Saiyuki Trio based upon their appearances and personalities.
InuYasha: The characters meet descendants of three of the main characters of the Journey of the West in one episode and main character, Kagome Higurashi, says a few lines about the whole book and story. Also, Inuyasha's necklace, which allows Kagome to punish him at will, is probably based on Sun Wukong's headband.
Kaleido Star: The cast performs Saiyuki on stage a few times in the beginning of the second half of the series.
Love Hina: The characters put on a play based on the story in anime episode 16.
Naruto: Temari, a character from Naruto, is based on Princess Iron Fan from the legend. Enma is a summoned monkey who bears resemblance to Sun Wukong. He has the ability to transform into a staff similar to the rúyì-jīngū-bàng, which can alter its size at will.
Ninja Sentai Kakuranger: The 1994 Super Sentai series, where each of the main characters are inspired by the main characters of Journey to the West
GoGo Sentai Boukenger: The 2006 Super Sentai series, where its final episode involved the Rúyì-jīngū-bàng
Juken Sentai Gekiranger: The 2007 Super Sentai series, where one of its villians fighting style is homeage to Sun Wukong.
Ranma 1/2: Pastiches of the characters appear throughout the manga and movies.
Read or Die (OVA): One of the villains is a clone of Xuanzang, who seems to have the powers of Sun Wukong and Xuanzang.
Sakura Wars: The Imperial Flower Troupe Performs the play of Journey to the West.
Science Fiction Saiyuki Starzinger (SF西遊記スタージンガー, Esu Efu Saiyuki Sutājingā?): 1978-1979 anime of a sci-fi space opera retelling of Journey to the West by Toei Animation.
Shinzo: An anime loosely based on Journey to the West.
XIN: An American comic mini-series produced by Anarchy Studio.

Links

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Journey_to_the_West
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology

Chinese classic novels | Epics | Journey to the West | 1590s books

Jin Ping Mei (金瓶梅)

Jin Ping Mei (金瓶梅)

Alternative Names (異名):
金瓶梅, Jin Ping Mei

Jin Ping Mei (Chinese: 金瓶梅; pinyin: Jīn Píngméi; literally "The Plum in the Golden Vase", also translated as The Golden Lotus) is a Chinese naturalistic novel composed in the vernacular (baihua) during the late Ming Dynasty. The author was Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng, a clear pseudonym. Earliest versions of the novel exist only in handwritten scripts; the first block-printed book was released only in 1610. The more complete version today comprises one hundred chapters.

Jin Ping Mei is sometimes considered to be the fifth classical novel after the Four Great Classical Novels. It is the first full-length Chinese fictional work to depict sexuality in a graphically explicit manner, and as such has a notoriety in China akin to Fanny Hill or Lady Chatterley's Lover in English.

Jin Ping Mei takes its name from the three central female characters — Pan Jin-lian (潘金莲, whose name means "Golden Lotus"); Li Ping-Er (李瓶兒, literally, "Little Vase"), a concubine of Ximen Qing; and Pang Chun-mei (龐春梅, "Spring plum blossoms"), a young maid who rose to power within the family.

Plot

The novel describes, in great detail, the downfall of the Ximen household during the years 1111-1127 (during the Northern Song Dynasty). The story centres around Ximen Qing 西門慶, a corrupt social climber and lustful merchant who is wealthy enough to marry a consort of wives and concubines.

A key episode of the novel, the seduction of the adulterous Pan Jinlian, occurs early in the book and is taken from an episode from Water Margin. After secretly murdering the husband of Pan, Ximen Qing marries her as one of his wives. The story follows the domestic sexual struggles of the women within his clan as they clamour for prestige and influence as the Ximen clan gradually declines in power.

Evaluation

Known for centuries as pornographic material and banned officially most of the time, the book is nevertheless surreptitiously read by many of the educated class. Only since the Qing Dynasty has it been re-evaluated as literature. Structurally taut, full of classical Chinese poetry and surprisingly mature even as early fiction, it also deals with larger sociological issues, such as the role of women in ancient Chinese society, sexual politics, while functioning concurrently as a novel of manners and an allegory of human corruption.

Acclaimed Qing critic Zhang Zhupo described it as 'the most incredible book existing under the heavens'「第一奇書」, and in the 20th century, Lu Xun had ranked it as highly.

The story contains a surprising number of descriptions of sexual toys and coital techniques that would be considered fetish today, as well as a large amount of bawdy jokes and oblique but still titillating sexual euphemisms. Many critics have argued that the highly sexual descriptions are essential, while others have noted its liberating influence on other Chinese novels on matters of sexuality, most notably in the Dream of the Red Chamber.

Little is known about the author except for some conjectures that he may have been a Taoist priest, who wrote to disclose the disintegrating morality and corruption of the late Ming Dynasty.

Connection to Water Margin (Outlaws of the Marsh)

The beginning chapter is based on an episode from "Tiger Slayer" Wu Song from Water Margin. The story is about Wu Song avenging the murder of his older brother Wu Da Lang.

In Water Margin, Ximen Qing was punished at the end by being brutally killed in broad daylight by Wu Song. In Jin Ping Mei, however, Ximen Qing dies a horrible death due to an accidental overdose of aphrodisiac pills.

Links

The Golden Lotus with manhua: http://www.china-on-site.com/pages/comic/comiccatalog7.php
Chinese Online version: http://www.yifan.net/yihe/novels/gold/gold.html
Sample of a chapter from David Tod Roy's translation http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7134.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Ping_Mei
http://ctexts.blogspot.com/1972/07/jin-pingmei.html

Chinese classic novels | 1610 books | 17th century books

中國 & China

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Water Margin(水滸傳)

Romance of Three Kingdoms (三國演義)

Journey to the West (西遊記)

Jin Ping Mei (金瓶梅)

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