Wen Zhong(闻仲, 聞仲)
Alternative Names (異名):
闻仲, 聞仲, Wen Zhong
Wen Zhong (Chinese: 闻仲; Pinyin: Wén Zhòng) is a major character featured within the famed ancient Chinese novel Fengshen Yanyi).
Wen Zhong had been the top ranked official under King Da Yi since the times of old. Following the death of Da Yi, Wen Zhong would crown Zi Shou as the new king of the Shang Dynasty. In short time, Wen Zhong would head out on his great dragon to subdue rebelling demons within the North Sea (an action that would take over fifteen years).
Throughout Wen Zhong's fifteen years of battle, he would be destined to play a very large role in the schemes of Heaven. By decree of the Jade Emperor himself, Wen Zhong would attain a third eye atop his forehead. This third eye could see through any level of disillusion and falsehood. Upon Wen Zhong's arrival at the Noon Gate, he would greet his colleagues and see the absurdness of the situation; immediately Wen Zhong would order the king to come before him. After listening to the king's bickering, and easily seeing through to his true deluded idiocy, Wen Zhong would invite his allies to attend to the situation.
Wen Zhong was appointed as the deity of Puhua Tianzun (普化天尊) in the end.[1]
Notes
[1] Fengshen Yanyi Chapter 99.
References
Investiture of the Gods chapter 27
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Fengshen Yanyi characters | Taoism | Chinese gods | Chinese mythology
Showing posts with label Chinese god. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Chinese god. Show all posts
Wenshu Guangfa Tianzun (文殊广法天尊)
Wenshu Guangfa Tianzun(文殊广法天尊)
Alternative Names (異名):
文殊广法天尊, Wenshu Guangfa Tianzun
Wenshu Guangfa Tianzun (Chinese: 文殊广法天尊; Pinyin: Wénshū Guǎngfǎ Tiānzūn) is a character featured within the famed ancient Chinese novel Investiture of the Gods (more commonly known as Fengshen Yanyi). This role originated from Manjusri, a Bodhisattva in Buddhism.
Guangfa Tianzun is the superiorman over Mount Five Dragons, Cloud Top Cave and the renowned teacher of Jinzha, the first son of Li Jing. In rank, Guangfa Tianzun is seemingly an elite superiorman -- even greater than that of Nezha's teacher Taiyi Zhenren.
After a fine duel had ensued between Muzha and Nezha and Li Jing attempted his first suicide, Guangfa Tianzun would appear. Once Guangfa Tianzun had ordered Li Jing to enter his cave for safety, he would personally settle things with the "spoiled brat" Nezha. Once Nezha's temper raged and he thrusted his spear continuously at Guangfa Tianzun, Guangfa Tianzun would side step and throw his legendary Seven Treasure Golden Lotus over Nezha's head. Nezha would lose consciousness quickly following this and would find himself tied to a large gold post while cuffed by golden rings. Soon enough, Guangfa Tianzun would order Jinzha, his student, to flog Nezha. Following the arrival of Nezha's teacher, Taiyi Zhenren, it would be revealed that the whole event between Li Jing and Nezha had been set by Taiyi Zhenren as a chance to teach Nezha some discipline. After Nezha greeted Guangfa Tianzun and his master - who was sitting to Guangfa Tianzun's right - Nezha would have a great level of inner resent.
Following the leave of Nezha and Li Jing upon Guangfa Tianzun's order, Guangfa Tianzun would not be seen again for quite some time.
References
Investiture of the Gods chapter 14 pages 167 - 169
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Superiormen of Fengshen Yanyi | Fengshen Yanyi characters | Taoism | Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Literary character stubs
Alternative Names (異名):
文殊广法天尊, Wenshu Guangfa Tianzun
Wenshu Guangfa Tianzun (Chinese: 文殊广法天尊; Pinyin: Wénshū Guǎngfǎ Tiānzūn) is a character featured within the famed ancient Chinese novel Investiture of the Gods (more commonly known as Fengshen Yanyi). This role originated from Manjusri, a Bodhisattva in Buddhism.
Guangfa Tianzun is the superiorman over Mount Five Dragons, Cloud Top Cave and the renowned teacher of Jinzha, the first son of Li Jing. In rank, Guangfa Tianzun is seemingly an elite superiorman -- even greater than that of Nezha's teacher Taiyi Zhenren.
After a fine duel had ensued between Muzha and Nezha and Li Jing attempted his first suicide, Guangfa Tianzun would appear. Once Guangfa Tianzun had ordered Li Jing to enter his cave for safety, he would personally settle things with the "spoiled brat" Nezha. Once Nezha's temper raged and he thrusted his spear continuously at Guangfa Tianzun, Guangfa Tianzun would side step and throw his legendary Seven Treasure Golden Lotus over Nezha's head. Nezha would lose consciousness quickly following this and would find himself tied to a large gold post while cuffed by golden rings. Soon enough, Guangfa Tianzun would order Jinzha, his student, to flog Nezha. Following the arrival of Nezha's teacher, Taiyi Zhenren, it would be revealed that the whole event between Li Jing and Nezha had been set by Taiyi Zhenren as a chance to teach Nezha some discipline. After Nezha greeted Guangfa Tianzun and his master - who was sitting to Guangfa Tianzun's right - Nezha would have a great level of inner resent.
Following the leave of Nezha and Li Jing upon Guangfa Tianzun's order, Guangfa Tianzun would not be seen again for quite some time.
References
Investiture of the Gods chapter 14 pages 167 - 169
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Superiormen of Fengshen Yanyi | Fengshen Yanyi characters | Taoism | Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Literary character stubs
Three Pure Ones (三清)
Three Pure Ones(三清)
Alternative Names (異名):
三清, Sarm Tsing(Cantonese), San-ch'ing(Mandarin), Three Pure Ones, Three Pure Pellucid Ones, Three Clarities, Three Purities
The Three Pure Pellucid Ones (Chinese: 三清; Cantonese: Sarm Tsing; Mandarin: San-ch'ing), also translated as "The Three Pure Ones", "The Three Clarities", or "The Three Purities", are the three highest Taoist deities. They are:
the Jade Pure Pellucid One (玉清; Cantonese: Yoc-Tsing; Mandarin: Yu-ch'ing), also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Origin", or "The Universal Lord of the Primordial Beginning" (元始天尊, Yuan Shi Tian Zun).
the Upper Pure Pellucid One (上清; Cantonese: Serng Tsing; Mandarin: Shang-ch'ing), also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Divinities and Treasures", or "The Universal Lord of the Numinous Treasure" (靈寶天尊, Ling Bao Tian Zun).
the Ultra Pure Pellucid One (太清; Cantonese: Tai Tsing; Mandarin: T'ai-ch'ing), also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Tao and Virtues" or "The Universal Lord of the Way and its Virtue" (道德天尊, De Dai Tian Zun) or the "Ultra Supreme Elder Lord" (太上老君, Tai Shang Lao Zun).
According to Taoist Scriptures, The Universally Honoured One of Tao and Virtues had manifested many various incarnations to teach living beings, and Laozi is one of his incarnations.
The Three Pure Ones also represent the three divine natures of all living beings. They symbolize a kind of Taoist trinity: Tao begets One; one begets two; two begets three; three begets all things (Tao Te Ching, Chapter 42)
See also
Chinese mythology
Religion in China
Taoism
Links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Religion stubs | Chinese mythology stubs | Chinese mythology | Taoism | Triune gods | Chinese gods
Alternative Names (異名):
三清, Sarm Tsing(Cantonese), San-ch'ing(Mandarin), Three Pure Ones, Three Pure Pellucid Ones, Three Clarities, Three Purities
The Three Pure Pellucid Ones (Chinese: 三清; Cantonese: Sarm Tsing; Mandarin: San-ch'ing), also translated as "The Three Pure Ones", "The Three Clarities", or "The Three Purities", are the three highest Taoist deities. They are:
the Jade Pure Pellucid One (玉清; Cantonese: Yoc-Tsing; Mandarin: Yu-ch'ing), also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Origin", or "The Universal Lord of the Primordial Beginning" (元始天尊, Yuan Shi Tian Zun).
the Upper Pure Pellucid One (上清; Cantonese: Serng Tsing; Mandarin: Shang-ch'ing), also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Divinities and Treasures", or "The Universal Lord of the Numinous Treasure" (靈寶天尊, Ling Bao Tian Zun).
the Ultra Pure Pellucid One (太清; Cantonese: Tai Tsing; Mandarin: T'ai-ch'ing), also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Tao and Virtues" or "The Universal Lord of the Way and its Virtue" (道德天尊, De Dai Tian Zun) or the "Ultra Supreme Elder Lord" (太上老君, Tai Shang Lao Zun).
According to Taoist Scriptures, The Universally Honoured One of Tao and Virtues had manifested many various incarnations to teach living beings, and Laozi is one of his incarnations.
The Three Pure Ones also represent the three divine natures of all living beings. They symbolize a kind of Taoist trinity: Tao begets One; one begets two; two begets three; three begets all things (Tao Te Ching, Chapter 42)
See also
Chinese mythology
Religion in China
Taoism
Links
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Religion stubs | Chinese mythology stubs | Chinese mythology | Taoism | Triune gods | Chinese gods
Taiyi Zhenren (太乙真人)
Taiyi Zhenren (太乙真人)
Alternative Names (異名):
太乙真人, Taiyi Zhenren
Taiyi Zhenren (Chinese: 太乙真人; Pinyin: Tàiyǐ Zhēnrén) is a famous character in Chinese folk tales. According to the opening of the famous novel Fengshen Yanyi, he is the reincarnation of the first emperor of the Shang dynasty, Shang Tang.
In Fengshen Yanyi, Taiyi Zhenren is the renowned teacher of Nezha, the celestial being destined to bring peace back to the Zhou Dynasty. Taiyi Zhenren is stationed atop Mount Champion and instructed Nezha to stay at Old Pond Pass - the place he had been born. After Nezha experienced great trouble with Ao Guang and went fleeing back to him, Taiyi Zhenren would at first be seen in deep thought; Zhenren would soon draw an "invisible juju" along his back however -- as to give him a safe passage to heaven through invisibility. After Nezha created further issues with a woman by the name of Madam Rockie, Taiyi Zhenren would soon be seen face to face with her in front of Taiyi Zhenren's cave which Nezha retreated into for protection. After having no choice but to be rid of Madam Rockie, he would start off by disabling the silk scarf which she stole from Nezha, and then trap her within his Nine-dragon-fire-net. While trapped in this net, Taiyi Zhenren summoned several dragons which unleashed a large volley of fire into the net; instantly killing Madam Rockie and turning her back into her original form as a molten rock.
References
Fengshen Yanyi chapter 12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Superiormen of Fengshen Yanyi | Fengshen Yanyi characters | Taoism | Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Chinese mythology stubs
Alternative Names (異名):
太乙真人, Taiyi Zhenren
Taiyi Zhenren (Chinese: 太乙真人; Pinyin: Tàiyǐ Zhēnrén) is a famous character in Chinese folk tales. According to the opening of the famous novel Fengshen Yanyi, he is the reincarnation of the first emperor of the Shang dynasty, Shang Tang.
In Fengshen Yanyi, Taiyi Zhenren is the renowned teacher of Nezha, the celestial being destined to bring peace back to the Zhou Dynasty. Taiyi Zhenren is stationed atop Mount Champion and instructed Nezha to stay at Old Pond Pass - the place he had been born. After Nezha experienced great trouble with Ao Guang and went fleeing back to him, Taiyi Zhenren would at first be seen in deep thought; Zhenren would soon draw an "invisible juju" along his back however -- as to give him a safe passage to heaven through invisibility. After Nezha created further issues with a woman by the name of Madam Rockie, Taiyi Zhenren would soon be seen face to face with her in front of Taiyi Zhenren's cave which Nezha retreated into for protection. After having no choice but to be rid of Madam Rockie, he would start off by disabling the silk scarf which she stole from Nezha, and then trap her within his Nine-dragon-fire-net. While trapped in this net, Taiyi Zhenren summoned several dragons which unleashed a large volley of fire into the net; instantly killing Madam Rockie and turning her back into her original form as a molten rock.
References
Fengshen Yanyi chapter 12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mythology
Superiormen of Fengshen Yanyi | Fengshen Yanyi characters | Taoism | Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Chinese mythology stubs
Shen (神)
Shen (神)
Alternative Names (異名):
神(Chinese), shén(pinyin), Shen, 신(Hangul), かみ(Hiragana), しん, spirit(literally), god, deity
Shen (Chinese: 神; pinyin: shén; Wade-Giles: shen; literally "spirit; god") is a keyword in Chinese philosophy, Chinese religion, and Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Semantics
Shen 神's polysemous meanings developed diachronically over three millennia. The Hanyu dazidian, an authoritative historical dictionary, distinguishes one meaning for shēn 神 "Name of a deity (神名)" and eleven meanings for shén 神, translated below.
1. Celestial gods/spirits of stories/legends, namely, the creator of the myriad things in heaven and earth and the supreme being. (传说中的天神,即天地万物的创造者和主宰者.)
2. Spirit; mind, mental faculties; consciousness. Like: concentrated attention; tire the mind; concentrate one's energy and attention. (精神.如: 凝神; 劳神; 聚精会神.)
3. Expression, demeanor; consciousness, state of mind. (表情; 神志.)
4. Portrait, portraiture. (肖像.)
5. Magical, supernatural, miraculous; mysterious, abstruse. Like: ability to divine the unknown, amazing foresight; highly skilled doctor; genius, masterpiece. (神奇; 玄妙. 如: 神机妙算; 神医; 神品.)
6. Esteem, respect; valuable, precious. (尊重; 珍贵.)
7. Rule, govern, administer. (治理.)
8. Cautious, careful, circumspect. (谨慎.)
9. Display, arrange, exhibit. (陈列.)
10. Dialect. 1. Dignity, distinction. (威风.) 2. Entrancement, ecstasy. (入神.) 3. Clever, intelligent. (聪明.)
11. Surname, family name. (姓.)
This dictionary entry for shen lists early usage examples, and many of these 11 meanings were well attested prior to the Han Dynasty. Chinese classic texts use shen in meanings 1 "spirit; god", 2 "spirit, mind; attention", 3 "expression; state of mind", 5 "supernatural", and meaning 6 "esteem". The earliest examples of meaning 4 "portrait" are in Song Dynasty texts. Meanings 7-9 first occur in early Chinese dictionaries; the Erya defines shen in meanings 7 "govern" and 8 "cautious" (and 6, which is attested elsewhere), and the Guangya defines meaning 9 "display". Meaning 10 gives three usages in Chinese dialects (technically "topolects", see Fangyan). Meaning 11 "a surname" is exemplified in Shennong ("Divine Farmer"), the culture hero and inventor of agriculture in Chinese mythology.
The Chinese language has many compounds of shen. For instance, it is compounded with tian 天 "sky; heaven; nature; god" in tianshen 天神 "celestial spirits; heavenly gods; deities; (Buddhism) deva", with shan 山 "mountain" in shanshen 山神 "mountain spirit", and hua 話 "speech; talk; saying; story" in shenhua 神話 "mythology; myth; fairy tale". Several shen "spirit; god" compounds use names for other supernatural beings, for example, ling 靈 "spirit; soul" in shenling 神靈 "gods; spirits, various deities", qi 祇 "earth spirit" in shenqi 神祇 "celestial and terrestrial spirits", xian 仙 "Xian (Daoist immortal), transcendent" in shenxian 神仙 "spirits and immortals; divine immortal", guai 怪 "spirit; devil; monster" in shenguai 神怪 "spirits and demons; gods and spirits", and gui 鬼 "ghost, goblin; demon, devil" in guishen 鬼神 "ghosts and spirits; supernatural beings".
Wing-Tsit Chan distinguishes four philosophical meanings of this guishen: "spiritual beings", "ancestors", "gods and demons", and "positive and negative spiritual forces".
In ancient times shen usually refers to heavenly beings while kuei refers to spirits of deceased human beings. In later-day sacrifices, kuei-shen together refers to ancestors. In popular religions shen means gods (who are good) and demons (who are not always good). In Neo-Confucianism kuai-shen may refer to all these three categories but more often than not the term refers to the activity of the material force (ch'i). Chang Tsai's dictum, "The negative spirit (kuei) and positive spirit (shen) are the spontaneous activity of the two material forces (yin and yang)," has become the generally accepted definition. (1963:790)
The primary meaning of shen is translatable as English "spirit, spirits, Spirit, spiritual beings; celestial spirits; ancestral spirits" or "god, gods, God; deity, deities, supernatural beings", etc. Shen is sometimes loosely translated as "soul", but Chinese distinguishes hun 魂 "spiritual soul" and po 魄 "physical soul". Instead of struggling to translate shen 神, it can be transliterated as a loanword. The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.) defines shen, "In Chinese philosophy: a god, person of supernatural power, or the spirit of a dead person."
Shen plays a central role in Christian translational disputes over Chinese terms for God. Among the early Chinese "god; God" names, shangdi 上帝 or di was the Shang term, tian 天 was the Zhou term, and shen was a later usage (see Feng Yu-Lan 1952:22-26, 30-31). Modern terms for "God" include shangdi, zhu 主, tianzhu 天主 (esp. Catholics), and shen 神 (esp. Protestants).
Graphics
The character 神 for shen exemplifies the most common class in Chinese character classification: xíngshēngzì 形声字 "pictophonetic compounds, semantic-phonetic compounds", which combine a radical (or classifier) that roughly indicates meaning and a phonetic that roughly indicates pronunciation. In this case, 神 combines the "altar/worship radical" 礻or 示 and a phonetic of shēn 申 "9th Earthly Branch; extend, stretch; prolong, repeat". Compare this phonetic element differentiated with the "person radical" in shen 伸 "stretch", the "silk radical" in shen 紳 "official's sash", the "mouth radical" in shen 呻 "chant, drone", the "stone radical" in shen 砷 "arsenic", the "earth radical" in kun 坤 "soil", and the "big radical" in yan 奄 "cover". (See the List of Kangxi radicals.)
Chinese shen 申 "extend" was anciently a phonetic loan character for shen 神 "spirit". The Mawangdui Silk Texts include two copies of the Dao De Jing and the "A Text" writes shen interchangeably as 申and 神: "If one oversees all under heaven in accord with the Way, demons have no spirit. It is not that the demons have no spirit, but that their spirits do not harm people." (chap. 60, tr. Mair 1990:30). The Shuowen Jiezi defines shen 申 as shen 神 and says that in the 7th lunar month when yin forces increase, bodies shenshu 申束 "bind up".
The earliest written forms of shen 神 "spirit; god" occur in Zhou Dynasty Bronzeware script and Qin Dynasty Seal script characters (compare the variants shown on the Chinese Etymology link below). Although 神 has not been identified in Shang Dynasty Oracle bone script records, the phonetic shen 申 has. Paleographers interpret the Oracle script of 申 as a pictograph of a "lightning bolt". This was graphically differentiated between dian 電 "lightening; electricity" with the "cloud radical" and shen 神 with the "worship radical", semantically suggesting both "lightning" and "spirits" coming down from the heavens.
Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Religion in China
Alternative Names (異名):
神(Chinese), shén(pinyin), Shen, 신(Hangul), かみ(Hiragana), しん, spirit(literally), god, deity
Shen (Chinese: 神; pinyin: shén; Wade-Giles: shen; literally "spirit; god") is a keyword in Chinese philosophy, Chinese religion, and Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Semantics
Shen 神's polysemous meanings developed diachronically over three millennia. The Hanyu dazidian, an authoritative historical dictionary, distinguishes one meaning for shēn 神 "Name of a deity (神名)" and eleven meanings for shén 神, translated below.
1. Celestial gods/spirits of stories/legends, namely, the creator of the myriad things in heaven and earth and the supreme being. (传说中的天神,即天地万物的创造者和主宰者.)
2. Spirit; mind, mental faculties; consciousness. Like: concentrated attention; tire the mind; concentrate one's energy and attention. (精神.如: 凝神; 劳神; 聚精会神.)
3. Expression, demeanor; consciousness, state of mind. (表情; 神志.)
4. Portrait, portraiture. (肖像.)
5. Magical, supernatural, miraculous; mysterious, abstruse. Like: ability to divine the unknown, amazing foresight; highly skilled doctor; genius, masterpiece. (神奇; 玄妙. 如: 神机妙算; 神医; 神品.)
6. Esteem, respect; valuable, precious. (尊重; 珍贵.)
7. Rule, govern, administer. (治理.)
8. Cautious, careful, circumspect. (谨慎.)
9. Display, arrange, exhibit. (陈列.)
10. Dialect. 1. Dignity, distinction. (威风.) 2. Entrancement, ecstasy. (入神.) 3. Clever, intelligent. (聪明.)
11. Surname, family name. (姓.)
This dictionary entry for shen lists early usage examples, and many of these 11 meanings were well attested prior to the Han Dynasty. Chinese classic texts use shen in meanings 1 "spirit; god", 2 "spirit, mind; attention", 3 "expression; state of mind", 5 "supernatural", and meaning 6 "esteem". The earliest examples of meaning 4 "portrait" are in Song Dynasty texts. Meanings 7-9 first occur in early Chinese dictionaries; the Erya defines shen in meanings 7 "govern" and 8 "cautious" (and 6, which is attested elsewhere), and the Guangya defines meaning 9 "display". Meaning 10 gives three usages in Chinese dialects (technically "topolects", see Fangyan). Meaning 11 "a surname" is exemplified in Shennong ("Divine Farmer"), the culture hero and inventor of agriculture in Chinese mythology.
The Chinese language has many compounds of shen. For instance, it is compounded with tian 天 "sky; heaven; nature; god" in tianshen 天神 "celestial spirits; heavenly gods; deities; (Buddhism) deva", with shan 山 "mountain" in shanshen 山神 "mountain spirit", and hua 話 "speech; talk; saying; story" in shenhua 神話 "mythology; myth; fairy tale". Several shen "spirit; god" compounds use names for other supernatural beings, for example, ling 靈 "spirit; soul" in shenling 神靈 "gods; spirits, various deities", qi 祇 "earth spirit" in shenqi 神祇 "celestial and terrestrial spirits", xian 仙 "Xian (Daoist immortal), transcendent" in shenxian 神仙 "spirits and immortals; divine immortal", guai 怪 "spirit; devil; monster" in shenguai 神怪 "spirits and demons; gods and spirits", and gui 鬼 "ghost, goblin; demon, devil" in guishen 鬼神 "ghosts and spirits; supernatural beings".
Wing-Tsit Chan distinguishes four philosophical meanings of this guishen: "spiritual beings", "ancestors", "gods and demons", and "positive and negative spiritual forces".
In ancient times shen usually refers to heavenly beings while kuei refers to spirits of deceased human beings. In later-day sacrifices, kuei-shen together refers to ancestors. In popular religions shen means gods (who are good) and demons (who are not always good). In Neo-Confucianism kuai-shen may refer to all these three categories but more often than not the term refers to the activity of the material force (ch'i). Chang Tsai's dictum, "The negative spirit (kuei) and positive spirit (shen) are the spontaneous activity of the two material forces (yin and yang)," has become the generally accepted definition. (1963:790)
The primary meaning of shen is translatable as English "spirit, spirits, Spirit, spiritual beings; celestial spirits; ancestral spirits" or "god, gods, God; deity, deities, supernatural beings", etc. Shen is sometimes loosely translated as "soul", but Chinese distinguishes hun 魂 "spiritual soul" and po 魄 "physical soul". Instead of struggling to translate shen 神, it can be transliterated as a loanword. The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.) defines shen, "In Chinese philosophy: a god, person of supernatural power, or the spirit of a dead person."
Shen plays a central role in Christian translational disputes over Chinese terms for God. Among the early Chinese "god; God" names, shangdi 上帝 or di was the Shang term, tian 天 was the Zhou term, and shen was a later usage (see Feng Yu-Lan 1952:22-26, 30-31). Modern terms for "God" include shangdi, zhu 主, tianzhu 天主 (esp. Catholics), and shen 神 (esp. Protestants).
Graphics
The character 神 for shen exemplifies the most common class in Chinese character classification: xíngshēngzì 形声字 "pictophonetic compounds, semantic-phonetic compounds", which combine a radical (or classifier) that roughly indicates meaning and a phonetic that roughly indicates pronunciation. In this case, 神 combines the "altar/worship radical" 礻or 示 and a phonetic of shēn 申 "9th Earthly Branch; extend, stretch; prolong, repeat". Compare this phonetic element differentiated with the "person radical" in shen 伸 "stretch", the "silk radical" in shen 紳 "official's sash", the "mouth radical" in shen 呻 "chant, drone", the "stone radical" in shen 砷 "arsenic", the "earth radical" in kun 坤 "soil", and the "big radical" in yan 奄 "cover". (See the List of Kangxi radicals.)
Chinese shen 申 "extend" was anciently a phonetic loan character for shen 神 "spirit". The Mawangdui Silk Texts include two copies of the Dao De Jing and the "A Text" writes shen interchangeably as 申and 神: "If one oversees all under heaven in accord with the Way, demons have no spirit. It is not that the demons have no spirit, but that their spirits do not harm people." (chap. 60, tr. Mair 1990:30). The Shuowen Jiezi defines shen 申 as shen 神 and says that in the 7th lunar month when yin forces increase, bodies shenshu 申束 "bind up".
The earliest written forms of shen 神 "spirit; god" occur in Zhou Dynasty Bronzeware script and Qin Dynasty Seal script characters (compare the variants shown on the Chinese Etymology link below). Although 神 has not been identified in Shang Dynasty Oracle bone script records, the phonetic shen 申 has. Paleographers interpret the Oracle script of 申 as a pictograph of a "lightning bolt". This was graphically differentiated between dian 電 "lightening; electricity" with the "cloud radical" and shen 神 with the "worship radical", semantically suggesting both "lightning" and "spirits" coming down from the heavens.
Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Religion in China
Shangdi (上帝)
Shangdi (上帝)
Alternative Names (異名):
上帝(Chinese), Shàngdì(pinyin), Shang Ti(Wade-Giles), Shangdi
Shangdi (上帝, pinyin: Shàngdì, Wade-Giles Shang Ti) is the Supreme God in the original religious system of the Han Chinese people (see traditional Chinese religion), a term used from the second millennium BC to the present day, as pronounced according the modern Mandarin dialect. Literally the term means "Above Emperor" or "Above Sovereign", which is taken to mean "Lord On High", "Highest Lord", "the God above", "the Supreme God", "Above ", or "Celestial Lord". Its meaning is similar to the term dyeus used by Indo-European peoples. Another title of Shangdi is simply Di (帝). Shangdi is chiefly associated with Heaven. From the earliest times of Chinese history, and especially from the Zhou Dynasty (周朝)(1122 BC to 256 BC) onwards, another name, Tian (天), is also used to refer to the Supreme God of the Chinese people (see Heaven worship). Tian is a word with multiple meanings in the ancient Chinese language, it can either mean the physical sky or the presiding God of Heaven. When Tian is used in the latter sense, it has the same meaning as Shangdi. By the time of the Han dynasty, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan declared that "Shangdi is another name for Tian". Shangdi is also the name given for God in the Standard Mandarin Union Version of the Bible. Shen 神 (lit. spirit, or deity) was also adopted by Protestant missionaries in China to refer to the Christian God. Shangdi is never represented with images or idols in Chinese tradition.
First mention
The earliest references to Shangdi are found in Oracle Bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600 BC - ca. 1046 BC). Shangdi is first mentioned in Chinese Literature in the Five Classics, (五經, pinyin: Wujing) allegedly compiled by Confucius in the 6th century BC. The Wujing was a collection of five books that represented the pinnacle of Chinese culture at that time. The oldest parts of the Wujing were first written around 1000 BC, apparently relying on older texts. All of the five classics include references to Shangdi:
Occurrences of Shangdi (上帝) in Wujing (五經)
This is just a sampling; alternate translations and compilations will yield slightly different numbers. The total for the Wujing collection alone totals over 85 references.
Other classics mention Shangdi as well (a formalized analysis showing the development of the term over time would be useful). Another "Classic" collection, the Four Books (四書, pinyin: SiShu), mentions Shangdi also, but it is a later compilation and the references are much more sparse and abstract. The highest amount of occurrences appear to be in the earliest references; and this may reflect the cultural development (or rejection) towards ShangDi as a whole over time.
One of the five books in the Wujing is the Classic of History, (書經, pinyin: Shujing), aka Book of History, aka Esteemed Book (尚書, pinyin Shangshu). The Shujing is possibly the earliest narrative of China, and may predate the European historian Herodotus (about 440 BC) as a history by many centuries. This implies that Shangdi is the oldest deity directly referenced in China by any Chinese narrative literature. The Shujing itself is also divided into 5 parts, and those parts were actually considered books as well. However, the number of books or "documents" is a division that varies largely on the version or compilation; thus quoted references may not match unless you use the same compilation.
The 2nd of the 5 "books" inside the Shujing is called the "Book of Yu" (虞書, pinyin: Yushu). Yu, in this title, is a location, not the popular hero 禹 Yu. This "book" has 4 "chapters"; and the 1st "chapter" is called the "Canon of Shun" (舜典, pinyin: ShunDian). Emperor Shun was the predecessor to the heroic Da Yu (大禹), or Great Yu, the first emperor of the Xia Dynasty. About the third sentence is the first mention of ShangDi. And, as it was mentioned in the previous section how yearly sacrifices to ShangDi were made by Emperor Shun, thus, it appears that, according to Confucius, the Chinese belief in ShangDi predates the Xia Dynasty.
Meaning & Use of Name
Shangdi (上帝) is the Supreme God in the original religious system of the Han Chinese people, a term used from the second millennium BC to the present day, as pronounced according the modern Mandarin dialect. Literally the term means "Above Emperor", which is taken to mean "Lord On High", "Highest Lord", or "Celestial Lord". Its meaning is similar to the term dyeus used by Indo-European peoples, but apparently without the linguistic connection. Another title of Shangdi is simply Di (帝). Shangdi is chiefly associated with Heaven. From the earliest times of Chinese history, and especially from the Zhou Dynasty (周朝) onwards, another name, Tian (天), is also used to refer to the Supreme God of the Chinese people. Tian is a word with multiple meanings in the ancient Chinese language, it could either mean the physical sky or the presiding God of Heaven. When Tian is used in the latter sense, it has the same meaning as Shangdi. By the time of the Han dynasty, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan declared that "Shangdi is another name for Tian".
Attributes
Uniquely, Chinese traditions do not appear to have a narrative for Shangdi in the earliest texts; nor are there physical representations of him. However, the many references to Shangdi do assign attributes to his character, including: maleness, emotion, compassion, intellect, judgement, mastery, and greatness. A few examples follow below; please note quoted references vary (usually by verse number) due to the variety of compilations:
The ShuJing (書經), the earliest of Chinese narratives (described above), represents Shangdi as a good god who punishes evil and rewards goodness. "Shangdi is not invariant [for he judges a person according to his actions]. On the good-doer He sends down blessings, and on the evil-doer He sends down miseries."
The Shijing (詩經), the earliest of Chinese poetries, attributes speech to him in poem 241. Other significant portrayals include poems 245, 236, 300; as well as poems 192, 224, 235, 254, 255, 258, 274, 276, & 304.
The Wujing (五經), and the official sacrificial rituals show people praying to Shangdi (i.e. Liji (禮記) 04:1:13; aka Liji Book 4, Section 1, verse 13).
These portrayals appear to predate Daoist or Buddhist interpretations by anywhere from 500 to 2000 years.
Creator
Shangdi is considered by some to be the Creator of the universe. If this is true, he would predate the later Daoist creation myth of Pangu around 200 AD by at least 500 years, as shown below. Note the "depersonalization" of Shangdi that appears to occur (or at least grow) after the Warring States (戰國) period with the ascension of Daoism. Oddly, later Daoism appears to restore personality traits to Heaven around 900 AD:
(470 - 390 BC) Warring States (戰國) Mohist philosopher Mozi (墨子), in the philosophical text 'Mozi', explicitly mentions Shangdi 26 times; as shown in 2:12, 4:16, 5:15, 6:25ab, 7:26ab, 27, 28ab, 8:31, 32, 9, 35ab, 36, 37, 12:47.
The quote below shows Mozi describing a benevolent creator, but here he is translated as using the agent of "Heaven". It is possible he is referring to Shangdi in the same way Westerners use "Heaven" to indirectly refer to God.
‘I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk so that the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and river, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man’s good or bring him evil.’ (from Book 7, Chapter 27, aka 天志, "Will of Heaven", paragraph 8. This translation is from "Yi Pao Mei" )
Note that the word "ordered" here appears to mean more than "guided".
(079 - 166 AD) East Han Dynasty (東漢朝) scholar Ma Rong (馬融), in one of his works[citation needed], claimed Shangdi (or more precisely 上帝太一神, pinyin: Shangdi Taiyishen) is the personification of "the Supreme Ultimate" (太一, pinyin: Tàiyī), which is the Ultimate Origin and Ground of Being for all existence. See also Taiyi Shengshui.
(127 - 200 AD) East Han Dynasty (東漢朝) Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan (鄭玄), in one of his works[citation needed], said: "Shangdi is the parent of all peoples" in his annotations of the Shangshu (aka Shujing), he says: "Everyone is a child of Heaven" (凡人皆天之子).
(960 -1279 AD) Song Dynasty (宋朝) begins reintroducing personality traits to Heaven in various Daoist incarnations as the Yu Huang (玉皇, or Jade Emperor), Pure August Jade Emperor (玉皇上帝), and Yuanshi Tianzun (元始天尊).
(1368 - 1644 AD) Ming Dynasty (明朝), records in the Statutes of the Ming Dynasty regulations during this time. This includes the words spoken to Shangdi by Ming Emperor Jiajing (嘉靖) in the Temple of Heaven. The specific words are recorded in the Text of the Border Sacrifice, depicting the 1538 AD Annual Sacrifice Ritual. They describe Shangdi as a creator:
In the beginning there was confusion and chaos. The five elements had not yet began to transform, nor did the sun and the moon began to shine. In the midst of this there existed neither forms nor sound. Then the Spiritual Sovereign came forth, and began to separate the purer from the grosser parts.
He created the heavens, He created earth, He created man. All things with reproductive powers received their being. The beginning of all things was the result of His Kind Act. All things received His Great Love. All of the myriad things are found lacking compared with His Great Virtue.
Who knows of all the blessings that He has sent to us? Only Huangtian Shangdi (皇天上帝) is the True Ancestor of the myriad things
Worship
From the earliest eras of Chinese history, Shangdi was officially worshipped through sacrificial rituals. Shangdi is believed to rule over natural and ancestral spirits, who act as His ministers. Shangdi is thought to be the Supreme Guide of both the natural order and the human order. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi at the great Temple of Heaven in the imperial capital. During the ritual a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi. It is important to note that Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the center building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" (神位, or shénwèi) inscribed with the name of God is stored on the throne. That name is "Supreme Sovereign God of Heaven" (皇天上帝, Huangtian Shangdi). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall For Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.
Chinese Christianity
Shangdi is also one of the main names used by Chinese Christians for the Christian God. It is first used in the southern China edition of the Chinese Union Version, a Mandarin Chinese translation of the Christian Bible. 19th century British Protestant missionaries in China, such as James Legge, used the name Shangdi to refer to the Christian God, while American Protestant missionaries in northern China in the early 20th century preferred the alternative Shen (神, pinyin: Shén), and another edition was printed reflecting this usage. By contrast, historically, Chinese Catholics have predominantly used the term "Tian Zhu" (天主, pinyin: tian1 zhu3; literally, "Lord of Heaven") to address God. Chinese philosophers of religion also use the name Shangdi to refer to the philosophical God. Newer versions of Chinese bibles that uses "Shen" add a space known as nuo tai before the character (" 神") to preserve formatting of the "Shangdi" editions. Some scholars like Matteo Ricci(Jesuit) and James Legge asserts that Shangdi is same as the Christian God after studying the Chinese Classics.
See also
Heaven worship
Chinese terms for God
Chinese Mythology
Pangu
Religion in China
Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Religion in China | Names of God
Alternative Names (異名):
上帝(Chinese), Shàngdì(pinyin), Shang Ti(Wade-Giles), Shangdi
Shangdi (上帝, pinyin: Shàngdì, Wade-Giles Shang Ti) is the Supreme God in the original religious system of the Han Chinese people (see traditional Chinese religion), a term used from the second millennium BC to the present day, as pronounced according the modern Mandarin dialect. Literally the term means "Above Emperor" or "Above Sovereign", which is taken to mean "Lord On High", "Highest Lord", "the God above", "the Supreme God", "Above ", or "Celestial Lord". Its meaning is similar to the term dyeus used by Indo-European peoples. Another title of Shangdi is simply Di (帝). Shangdi is chiefly associated with Heaven. From the earliest times of Chinese history, and especially from the Zhou Dynasty (周朝)(1122 BC to 256 BC) onwards, another name, Tian (天), is also used to refer to the Supreme God of the Chinese people (see Heaven worship). Tian is a word with multiple meanings in the ancient Chinese language, it can either mean the physical sky or the presiding God of Heaven. When Tian is used in the latter sense, it has the same meaning as Shangdi. By the time of the Han dynasty, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan declared that "Shangdi is another name for Tian". Shangdi is also the name given for God in the Standard Mandarin Union Version of the Bible. Shen 神 (lit. spirit, or deity) was also adopted by Protestant missionaries in China to refer to the Christian God. Shangdi is never represented with images or idols in Chinese tradition.
First mention
The earliest references to Shangdi are found in Oracle Bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600 BC - ca. 1046 BC). Shangdi is first mentioned in Chinese Literature in the Five Classics, (五經, pinyin: Wujing) allegedly compiled by Confucius in the 6th century BC. The Wujing was a collection of five books that represented the pinnacle of Chinese culture at that time. The oldest parts of the Wujing were first written around 1000 BC, apparently relying on older texts. All of the five classics include references to Shangdi:
Occurrences of Shangdi (上帝) in Wujing (五經)
| Chinese | pinyin | English | occurrence |
| 書經 | Shujing | Classic of History | 32 times |
| 詩經 | Shijing | Classic of Poetry | 24 times |
| 禮記 | Liji | Classic of Rites | 20 times |
| 春秋 | Chunqiu | Spring and Autumn Annals | 8 times |
| 易經 | Yijing | Classic of Changes | 2 times |
This is just a sampling; alternate translations and compilations will yield slightly different numbers. The total for the Wujing collection alone totals over 85 references.
Other classics mention Shangdi as well (a formalized analysis showing the development of the term over time would be useful). Another "Classic" collection, the Four Books (四書, pinyin: SiShu), mentions Shangdi also, but it is a later compilation and the references are much more sparse and abstract. The highest amount of occurrences appear to be in the earliest references; and this may reflect the cultural development (or rejection) towards ShangDi as a whole over time.
One of the five books in the Wujing is the Classic of History, (書經, pinyin: Shujing), aka Book of History, aka Esteemed Book (尚書, pinyin Shangshu). The Shujing is possibly the earliest narrative of China, and may predate the European historian Herodotus (about 440 BC) as a history by many centuries. This implies that Shangdi is the oldest deity directly referenced in China by any Chinese narrative literature. The Shujing itself is also divided into 5 parts, and those parts were actually considered books as well. However, the number of books or "documents" is a division that varies largely on the version or compilation; thus quoted references may not match unless you use the same compilation.
The 2nd of the 5 "books" inside the Shujing is called the "Book of Yu" (虞書, pinyin: Yushu). Yu, in this title, is a location, not the popular hero 禹 Yu. This "book" has 4 "chapters"; and the 1st "chapter" is called the "Canon of Shun" (舜典, pinyin: ShunDian). Emperor Shun was the predecessor to the heroic Da Yu (大禹), or Great Yu, the first emperor of the Xia Dynasty. About the third sentence is the first mention of ShangDi. And, as it was mentioned in the previous section how yearly sacrifices to ShangDi were made by Emperor Shun, thus, it appears that, according to Confucius, the Chinese belief in ShangDi predates the Xia Dynasty.
Meaning & Use of Name
Shangdi (上帝) is the Supreme God in the original religious system of the Han Chinese people, a term used from the second millennium BC to the present day, as pronounced according the modern Mandarin dialect. Literally the term means "Above Emperor", which is taken to mean "Lord On High", "Highest Lord", or "Celestial Lord". Its meaning is similar to the term dyeus used by Indo-European peoples, but apparently without the linguistic connection. Another title of Shangdi is simply Di (帝). Shangdi is chiefly associated with Heaven. From the earliest times of Chinese history, and especially from the Zhou Dynasty (周朝) onwards, another name, Tian (天), is also used to refer to the Supreme God of the Chinese people. Tian is a word with multiple meanings in the ancient Chinese language, it could either mean the physical sky or the presiding God of Heaven. When Tian is used in the latter sense, it has the same meaning as Shangdi. By the time of the Han dynasty, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan declared that "Shangdi is another name for Tian".
Attributes
Uniquely, Chinese traditions do not appear to have a narrative for Shangdi in the earliest texts; nor are there physical representations of him. However, the many references to Shangdi do assign attributes to his character, including: maleness, emotion, compassion, intellect, judgement, mastery, and greatness. A few examples follow below; please note quoted references vary (usually by verse number) due to the variety of compilations:
The ShuJing (書經), the earliest of Chinese narratives (described above), represents Shangdi as a good god who punishes evil and rewards goodness. "Shangdi is not invariant [for he judges a person according to his actions]. On the good-doer He sends down blessings, and on the evil-doer He sends down miseries."
The Shijing (詩經), the earliest of Chinese poetries, attributes speech to him in poem 241. Other significant portrayals include poems 245, 236, 300; as well as poems 192, 224, 235, 254, 255, 258, 274, 276, & 304.
The Wujing (五經), and the official sacrificial rituals show people praying to Shangdi (i.e. Liji (禮記) 04:1:13; aka Liji Book 4, Section 1, verse 13).
These portrayals appear to predate Daoist or Buddhist interpretations by anywhere from 500 to 2000 years.
Creator
Shangdi is considered by some to be the Creator of the universe. If this is true, he would predate the later Daoist creation myth of Pangu around 200 AD by at least 500 years, as shown below. Note the "depersonalization" of Shangdi that appears to occur (or at least grow) after the Warring States (戰國) period with the ascension of Daoism. Oddly, later Daoism appears to restore personality traits to Heaven around 900 AD:
(470 - 390 BC) Warring States (戰國) Mohist philosopher Mozi (墨子), in the philosophical text 'Mozi', explicitly mentions Shangdi 26 times; as shown in 2:12, 4:16, 5:15, 6:25ab, 7:26ab, 27, 28ab, 8:31, 32, 9, 35ab, 36, 37, 12:47.
The quote below shows Mozi describing a benevolent creator, but here he is translated as using the agent of "Heaven". It is possible he is referring to Shangdi in the same way Westerners use "Heaven" to indirectly refer to God.
‘I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk so that the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and river, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man’s good or bring him evil.’ (from Book 7, Chapter 27, aka 天志, "Will of Heaven", paragraph 8. This translation is from "Yi Pao Mei" )
Note that the word "ordered" here appears to mean more than "guided".
(079 - 166 AD) East Han Dynasty (東漢朝) scholar Ma Rong (馬融), in one of his works[citation needed], claimed Shangdi (or more precisely 上帝太一神, pinyin: Shangdi Taiyishen) is the personification of "the Supreme Ultimate" (太一, pinyin: Tàiyī), which is the Ultimate Origin and Ground of Being for all existence. See also Taiyi Shengshui.
(127 - 200 AD) East Han Dynasty (東漢朝) Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan (鄭玄), in one of his works[citation needed], said: "Shangdi is the parent of all peoples" in his annotations of the Shangshu (aka Shujing), he says: "Everyone is a child of Heaven" (凡人皆天之子).
(960 -1279 AD) Song Dynasty (宋朝) begins reintroducing personality traits to Heaven in various Daoist incarnations as the Yu Huang (玉皇, or Jade Emperor), Pure August Jade Emperor (玉皇上帝), and Yuanshi Tianzun (元始天尊).
(1368 - 1644 AD) Ming Dynasty (明朝), records in the Statutes of the Ming Dynasty regulations during this time. This includes the words spoken to Shangdi by Ming Emperor Jiajing (嘉靖) in the Temple of Heaven. The specific words are recorded in the Text of the Border Sacrifice, depicting the 1538 AD Annual Sacrifice Ritual. They describe Shangdi as a creator:
In the beginning there was confusion and chaos. The five elements had not yet began to transform, nor did the sun and the moon began to shine. In the midst of this there existed neither forms nor sound. Then the Spiritual Sovereign came forth, and began to separate the purer from the grosser parts.
He created the heavens, He created earth, He created man. All things with reproductive powers received their being. The beginning of all things was the result of His Kind Act. All things received His Great Love. All of the myriad things are found lacking compared with His Great Virtue.
Who knows of all the blessings that He has sent to us? Only Huangtian Shangdi (皇天上帝) is the True Ancestor of the myriad things
Worship
From the earliest eras of Chinese history, Shangdi was officially worshipped through sacrificial rituals. Shangdi is believed to rule over natural and ancestral spirits, who act as His ministers. Shangdi is thought to be the Supreme Guide of both the natural order and the human order. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi at the great Temple of Heaven in the imperial capital. During the ritual a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi. It is important to note that Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the center building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" (神位, or shénwèi) inscribed with the name of God is stored on the throne. That name is "Supreme Sovereign God of Heaven" (皇天上帝, Huangtian Shangdi). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall For Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.
Chinese Christianity
Shangdi is also one of the main names used by Chinese Christians for the Christian God. It is first used in the southern China edition of the Chinese Union Version, a Mandarin Chinese translation of the Christian Bible. 19th century British Protestant missionaries in China, such as James Legge, used the name Shangdi to refer to the Christian God, while American Protestant missionaries in northern China in the early 20th century preferred the alternative Shen (神, pinyin: Shén), and another edition was printed reflecting this usage. By contrast, historically, Chinese Catholics have predominantly used the term "Tian Zhu" (天主, pinyin: tian1 zhu3; literally, "Lord of Heaven") to address God. Chinese philosophers of religion also use the name Shangdi to refer to the philosophical God. Newer versions of Chinese bibles that uses "Shen" add a space known as nuo tai before the character (" 神") to preserve formatting of the "Shangdi" editions. Some scholars like Matteo Ricci(Jesuit) and James Legge asserts that Shangdi is same as the Christian God after studying the Chinese Classics.
See also
Heaven worship
Chinese terms for God
Chinese Mythology
Pangu
Religion in China
Chinese gods | Chinese mythology | Religion in China | Names of God
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